ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS........................................................v

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS..................................................ix

INTRODUCTION............................................................1


PART I. THE POLITICS OF REPARATION AND VICTIM
ORGANISATIONS............................................................5

CHAPTER 1. REPARATION IN A CONTEXT OF GROSS AND
SYSTEMATIC HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS.......................................7
1.  The context of the study.............................................7
    1.1  Dealing with a past of gross and systematic human
         rights violations...............................................7
         1.1.1  Transitional justice.....................................7
         1.1.2  Gross and systematic human rights violations............10
                1.1.2.1  Gross..........................................10
                1.1.2.2  Systematic.....................................11
                1.1.2.3  Crimes.........................................11
                1.1.2.4  Human rights violations and abuses.............13
         1.1.3  Transitional justice and gross and systematic
                human rights violations.................................14
    1.2  Reparation for victims.........................................14
    1.3  Why reparation?................................................18
         1.3.1  Legal grounds for reparation............................18
         1.3.2  Moral grounds for reparation............................21
         1.3.3  Growing importance of reparation........................22
2.  What is reparation about?...........................................25
    2.1  Substance of reparation as described by the Draft Basic
         Principles and Guidelines......................................27
         2.1.1  Restitution.............................................27
         2.1.2  Compensation............................................28
         2.1.3  Rehabilitation..........................................29
         2.1.4  Satisfaction and guarantees of non-repetition...........30
    2.2  Other classifications of reparation measures...................34
         2.2.1  Material and non-material reparation measures...........34
         2.2.2  Individual and collective reparation measures...........34
         2.2.3  Commemorative and transformative reparation
                measures................................................35
    2.3  Bottom line of reparation?.....................................36
3.  What reparation ought to achieve: four basic options.................39
    3.1  The conditio quo ante..........................................40
    3.2  The hypothetical condition:as if violations never occurred.....42
    3.3  Economic theory of reparation..................................45
    3.4  Seeking a new balance..........................................46
4.  Conclusion: a process approach to reparation........................49

CHAPTER 3. VICTIM ORGANISATIONS AND THE POLITICS
OF REPARATION: TOWARDS A RESEARCH QUESTION..............................53
1.  Reparation and politics.............................................53
    1.1  Nature of the reparation process:judicial or politically
         megotiated?....................................................53
         1.1.1  Judicial process........................................54
         1.1.2  Politically-negotiated process..........................56
    1.2  Victims as party to the process................................59
         1.2.1  Victims:rising stars!?..................................60
                1.2.1.1 Rising stars!...................................60
                1.2.1.2 Rising stars?...................................65
         1.2.2  Defining victim organisations...........................67
                1.2.2.1 Main criteria...................................67
                1.2.2.2 Complex realities...............................68
2.  Reparation as a political process: two theoretical approaches.......71
    2.1  Realistic process approach.....................................71
         2.1.1  Victim organisations as interest groups.................72
                2.1.1.1 Political opportunity structure.................74
                2.1.1.2 Representation..................................77
                2.1.1.3 Resource mobilisation:tools & action............81
                2.1.1.4 Interaction.....................................82
                2.1.1.5 Success.........................................83
         2.1.2  Victims, victim dynamics and politics....................85
                2.1.2.1 Victim competition..............................85
                2.1.2.2 Politicisation of victimhood....................87
                2.1.2.3 Emotional appeals and symbols...................87
         2.1.3  Interest group studies in developing countries
                and in the domain of human rights.......................88
                2.1.3.1 Developing countries............................88
                2.1.3.2 Human rights....................................90
         2.1.4  Integrated realistic conceptual framework...............90
    2.2  Idealistic process approach....................................91
         2.2.1  Main principles.........................................92
                2.2.1.1 Importance of morals and ethics.................92
                2.2.1.2 Process leading to agreement....................93
                2.2.1.3 Procedural requirements.........................95
         2.2.2  Limitations and merits of the idealistic process
                approach................................................98
                2.2.2.1 Limitations.....................................98
                2.2.2.2 Merits.........................................103
3.  Towards a more detailed research question..........................105
    3.1  Tying things together.........................................105
    3.2  Correspondence between the realistic and the idealistic
         process approach..............................................107
         3.2.1  Principle of generality and concepts of 
                representativity and procedural success................109
         3.2.2  Principle of autonomy and concept of tools
                and action.............................................109
         3.2.3  Principle of power neutrality and concept of 
                political opportunity structure.......................110
         3.2.4  Principle of ideal role taking and concept of 
                interaction............................................110
         3.2.5  Principle of transparency and concept of 
                tools and action.......................................110
         3.2.6  Implementation and concept of substantial success......111
4.  Conclusion.........................................................111

CHAPTER 3. FROM THEORY INTO THE FIELD:
METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES..................................................113
1.  Face validity......................................................115
    1.1  Data collection...............................................115
         1.1.1  Selections.............................................116
                1.1.1.1 Rwanda as a case study.........................116
                1.1.1.2 Units of observation...........................118
         1.1.2  Instruments............................................122
                1.1.2.1 Interviews.....................................122
                1.1.2.2 Non-participant observations...................124
                1.1.2.3 Documentary evidence...........................126
    1.2  Data analysis.................................................127
         1.2.1  Instrument.............................................127
         1.2.2  Data display...........................................130
    1.3  Dynamic process...............................................130
2.  Construct validity.................................................131
    2.1  Pre-operational explication of constructs.....................132
    2.2  Mono-operation and mono-method bias...........................133
    2.3  Hypothesis guessing and social desirability...................133
3.  External validity..................................................136
4.  Conclusion.........................................................137


PART II. CASE-STUDY ON RWANDA..........................................139

CHAPTER 4. THE RWANDAN TRAGEDY, ITS AFTERMATH
AND ITS VICTIM ORGANISATIONS...........................................141
1.  The Rwandan genocide...............................................141
    1.1  Brief overview of a tragic history............................141
         1.1.1  The 1990-1994 period...................................142
         1.1.2  The post-1994 period...................................146
    1.2  Dealing with the past.........................................148
         1.2.1  At the national level..................................149
                1.2.1.1 From a classical justice paradigm to 
                        gacaca.........................................149
                1.2.1.2 The mandate of transitional justice
                        mechanisms.....................................152
         1.2.2  At the international level.............................154
         1.2.3  The boundaries of transitional justice.................156
2.  Critical features of the political opportunity structure...........157
    2.1  National political opportunity structure......................158
    2.2  International political opportunity structure.................163
3.  Victim organisations in Rwanda.....................................164
    3.1  An overview...................................................165
    3.2  The toolbox of victim associations............................172
         3.2.1  Material capacity......................................172
         3.2.2  Non-material capacity..................................176
4.  Conclusion.........................................................177

CHAPTER 5. VICTIM ORGANISATIONS IN RWANDA:
FOR AND BY WHOM?.......................................................181
1.  Organisations for whom?............................................181
    1.1  Genocide: defining a crime or a period of time?...............182
         1.1.1  Genocide as a crime: legal and social definition.......182
                1.1.1.1 Legal definition...............................182
                1.1.1.2 Social definition..............................185
         1.1.2  Genocide: denoting a period in time....................188
    1.2  The beneficiaries of victim organisations in Rwanda...........190
         1.2.1  Explicit reference to genocide.........................191
         1.2.2  No explicit reference to genocide......................194
         1.2.3  Restricting political opportunity structure for 
                other target groups....................................195
    1.3  Rescapes and victims in Rwanda................................196
         1.3.1  Those who fell and those who survived..................197
         1.3.2  Who is a rescape?......................................200
                1.3.2.1 Four parameters with variable importance.......200
                1.3.2.2 Rescape in general.............................203
                1.3.2.3 Taking decisions in individual cases...........206 
         1.3.3  Different logic........................................216
    1.4  Idiosyncrasy and lack of clear statements by the
         associations..................................................217
    1.5  Interim findings..............................................220
2.  Organised by whom?.................................................221
    2.1  Who are the members of the victim organisations?..............221
         2.1.1  Non-membership organisations...........................222
         2.1.2  Membership organisations...............................222
                2.1.2.1 Formal membership..............................223
                2.1.2.2 Informal membership............................236
    2.3  The profile of the leaders....................................247
    2.4  Interim findings..............................................249
3.  Relationships between leaders, members and beneficiaries...........251
    3.1  Elections.....................................................252
    3.2  Participation.................................................254
         3.2.1  Type 1: Involving actual beneficiaries.................256
         3.2.2  Type 2: Involving local formal members.................260
         3.2.3  Type 3: Involving informal members.....................265
                3.2.3.1 In general......................................265
                3.2.3.2 Observing a local Ibuka meeting................268
    3.3  Costs and rewards of involvement..............................270
         3.3.1  Non-material and material rewards......................271
         3.3.2  The FARG and victim associations: a welcome
                confusion..............................................275
         3.3.3  Organisational rewards and reparation..................275
    3.4  Interim findings..............................................277
4. Conclusion..........................................................278

CHAPTER 6. VICTIM ORGANIZATIONS IN INTERACTION.........................281
1. Victim organisations and bonding interaction patterns...............281
   1.1  Victim organisations united: a collective......................282
   1.2  Harmony or friction?...........................................284
        1.2.1  The role of the Ibuka collective........................284
               1.2.1.1 The collective as a threat......................284
               1.2.1.2 The collective: defending interests.............290
               1.2.1.3 The collective as a firewall....................295
        1.2.2  A more detailed pattern of interaction..................298
               1.2.2.1 Open collaboration..............................298
               1.2.2.2 Hidden differences and tensions.................304
   1.3  Collaboration in the field of reparation?......................309
        1.3.1  FARG....................................................310
               1.3.1.1 A limited group of beneficiaries................311
               1.3.1.2 Access to FARG..................................313
        1.3.2  FIND....................................................314
   1.4  International bonding networks.................................317
   1.5  Interim findings...............................................319
2. Victim organisations and bridging networks..........................320
   2.1 Poor bridging networks at national level........................321
   2.2 Poor bridging networks at international level...................324
   2.3 Interim findings................................................328
3. Victim associations and other 1994 victims..........................329
   3.1  Extremism in the field of justice?.............................329
        3.1.1 Protest marches..........................................330
        3.1.2 False testimonies........................................331
        3.1.3 Opposing gacaca..........................................334
   3.2  Differentiating victims of crime: mandatory or 
        unjustifiable?.................................................335
        3.2.1 Victim associations: Uniting or disuniting?..............336
        3.2.2 Reparation for the 'other' victim?.......................341
        3.2.3 The insurmountable gap...................................352
        3.2.4 Opening to a more balanced approach......................354
   3.3  Interim findings...............................................359
4. Conclusion..........................................................360

CHAPTER 7. REPARATION POLICIES IN RWANDA...............................365
1. Governmental policies...............................................366
   1.1  The Rwandan government and victim associations:
        a tense relationship...........................................366
   1.2  The FARG.......................................................371
        1.2.1  Genesis of the FARG.....................................371
        1.2.2  FARG provisions.........................................372
               1.2.2.1 Beneficiaries...................................373
               1.2.2.2 Type of measures................................375
               1.2.2.3 Contributors....................................377
        1.2.3  Implementation..........................................379
               1.2.3.1 Victim associations: players in the field.......379
               1.2.3.2 Identification of beneficiaries: a 
               countrywide census......................................380
               1.2.3.3 Identification of beneficiaries: individual
                       cases...........................................382
               1.2.3.4 Problematic FARG measures.......................395
               1.2.3.5 FARG causing social problems....................399
        1.2.4  Assistance as a form of reparation?.....................402
               1.2.4.1 Social services as rehabilitation...............402
               1.2.4.2 Social services and the renewed balance 
                       in society......................................407
               1.2.4.3 Assistance and reparation in Rwanda:
                       the relation between FARG and FIND..............408
    1.3 The FIND.......................................................411
        1.3.1  Genesis of FIND.........................................411
        1.3.2  FIND provisions and their evolution.....................415
               1.3.2.1 Who should benefit from FIND?...................415
               1.3.2.2 Measures proposed by FIND.......................422
               1.3.2.3 Contributors to FIND............................430
        1.3.3  Remarks vis-a-vis FIND..................................433
               1.3.3.1 Gacaca and the need for reparation..............434
               1.3.3.2 Gacaca and the identification of 
                       beneficiaries...................................435
               1.3.3.3 Single lump sum.................................438
               1.3.3.4 Role of victim associations in the 
                       drafting and implementing process...............441
               1.3.3.5 Modifications to the gacaca law?................444
     1.4 Interim findings..............................................445
2. Judicial policies...................................................449
   2.1  Judicial policies at the national law..........................450
        2.1.1 Judging reparation claims................................451
        2.1.2 What role for victim associations in court?..............456
        2.1.3 Judicial decisions and FIND..............................459
   2.2  Judicial policies at the international level?..................460
        2.2.1 Victim associations and the ICTR: a tense 
              relationship.............................................460
        2.2.2 Reparation concerns in the ICTR..........................464
        2.2.3 An obligation of the international community
              to contribute?...........................................469
   2.3  Judicial policies in third countries...........................471
   2.4  Interim findings...............................................473
3. Conclusion..........................................................474

PART III. CONCLUDING PART..............................................481

CHAPTER 8. CONCLUDING CHAPTER..........................................483
1. Findings of the Rwandan case study..................................483
   1.1  The political opportunity structure............................485
   1.2  Tools and actions..............................................486
   1.3  Representation.................................................487
   1.4  Interaction....................................................489
   1.5  Procedural and material success................................490
2. Realism and idealism: studying the gap..............................493
   2.1  Representativity and the principle of generality...............494
   2.2  Tools and actions and the principles of autonomy and 
        transparency...................................................496
   2.3  Interaction and the principle of ideal role-taking.............498
   2.4  Success and the principles of generality and autonomy..........499
   2.5  Political opportunity structure and the principle of 
        power neutrality...............................................501
3. Realism and idealism: narrowing the gap.............................502
   3.1  Suggestions to narrow the gap..................................502
   3.2  Setting directions for further research........................506
4. Real, ideal and future politics of reparation.......................507

ANNEX 1. VICTIM ASSOCIATIONS IN RWANDA.................................511

ANNEX 2. TYPE OF BENEFITS DISTRIBUTED BY THE 
VICTIM ORGANISATIONS IN RWANDA.........................................513

BIBLIOGRAPHY...........................................................517

INDEX..................................................................533