Acknowledgements................................................................xvii

Chapter 1 General Introduction: The Need a General
  Decision Model
  1  Judicial Assessment of Unequal Treatment......................................1
  2  Problems Regarding the Judicial Assessment of the Principle
     of Equality...................................................................4
  3  The Need for Well-reasoned Decisions on Unequal Treatment......................5
  4  The Desirability of Developing a Decision Model...............................7

Chapter 2  A Theoretical Model for Judicial Decision-making
  on the Principle of Equality
  1  Definition of Concepts........................................................9
     1.1  Equality, Comparability, Differentiation and 
          Discrimination...........................................................9
          1.1.1  The Aristotelian Equality Formula.................................9
          1.1.2  Distinction, Unequal Treatment, Differentiation,
                 Classification and Discrimination................................11
     1.2  Formal and Substantive Inequality; Direct and 
          Indirect Inequality.....................................................12
          1.2.1  Formal and Substantive Inequality................................12
          1.2.2  Direct and Indirect Indirect Inequality--Relationship
                 of these Concepts to Formal and Substantive
                 Inequality.......................................................13
          1.2.3  Other Concepts...................................................14
  2  Scope of Application of the Decision Model...................................16
     2.1  Introduction............................................................16
     2.2  Open and Closed Models..................................................16
     2.3  Situations where a Complaint can be Made about
          Unequal Treatment.......................................................18
          2.3.1  Situations of Unequal Treatment..................................18
          2.3.2  Consequences for the Assessment Methods..........................21
     2.4  Manifestations of Unequal Treatment: Formal or 
          Substantive, Direct or Indirect, Intentional or
          Unintentional ..........................................................22
     2.5  Ground of Distinction...................................................25
     2.6  Applicability in Horizontal Relationships...............................26
  3  Contents of the Assessment Model.............................................28
     3.1  General Remarks.........................................................28
          3.1.1  Introduction.....................................................28
          3.1.2  Phases of the Assessment.........................................28
          3.1.3  Design of the Justification or Assessment Model..................30
          3.1.4  Preferential Treatment..........................................32
     3.2  The Requirement of a Legitimate Aim.....................................32
          3.2.1  Introduction: The Need to Assess the Legitimacy
                 of the Aims Pursued..............................................32
          3.2.2  Uncovering the Aim of a Difference in Treatment..................35
          3.2.3  The Simultaneous Search for Different Goals 
                 (Plurality of Objectives)........................................39
          3.2.4  Substantive Assessment of the Justifiability of the 
                 Aims Pursued.....................................................42
     3.3  Assessment of the Relationship Between Goal
          and Means...............................................................46
          3.3.1  Introduction.....................................................46
          3.3.2  Over- and Underinclusiveness, or the Assessment
                 of the Degree of Fit.............................................46
          3.3.3  Suitability......................................................49
          3.3.4  Subsidiarity.....................................................51
          3.3.5  Proportionality in the Strict Sense
                 (Narrow Proportionality).........................................53
  4  The Test of Comparability and the First Phase of Assessment..................57
     4.1  Content of the Comparability Test.......................................57
     4.2  Determining Comparability...............................................58
          4.2.1  Introduction.....................................................58
          4.2.2  The Need to Establish a Standard of Comparison...................59
          4.2.3  Substantive Assessment of the Standard
                 of Comparison....................................................63
          4.2.4  The Justification Model and the Comparability
                 Test: Over- and Underinclusivenss................................65
     4.3  The Second Phase of the Assessment: Desirability
          of the Choice of the Justification Model................................66
          4.3.1  Introduction.....................................................66
          4.3.2  The Desirability of the Choice of the 
                 Justification Model..............................................69
          4.3.3  Conclusion: No Comparability Test................................72
     4.4  The Evidential Function of the Comparability Test; 
          Alternative Tests.......................................................72
          4.4.1  Assessment in the First Phase; Apportionment
                 of the Burden of Proof...........................................72
          4.4.2  First Alternative: Test of Intent or Motive......................74
          4.4.3  Second Alternative: the 'but for' Criterion......................75
          4.4.4  Third Alternative: Test of Disadvantage..........................76
          4.4.5  Conclusion.......................................................79
  5  The Intensity of the Assessment..............................................79
     5.1  Introduction: The Need for Differentiation in the
          Intensity of the Assessment.............................................79
     5.2  'Levels' of Intensity and their Significance for the 
          Assessment..............................................................81
          5.2.1  Gradations or 'Levels' of Intensity of 
                 the Assessment...................................................81
          5.2.2  Consequences of the Choice of a Particular
                 Level of Intensity...............................................82
     5.3  Factors Determining the Level of Intensity..............................84
          5.3.1  Introduction.....................................................84
          5.3.2  Factors Determining the Level of Intensity.......................84
          5.3.3  Balancing the Different Factors and Deciding
                 on the Level of Intensity........................................98
  6  Summary of the Theoretical Assessment Model..................................99


Chapter 3  Assessment Against Article 14 of the European Convention
  on Human Rights by the European Court of Human Rights
  1  General.....................................................................103
     1.1  The Accessory Nature of the Prohibition of
          Discrimination.........................................................103
          1.1.1  The Way in which the Court has given
                 Substance to the Accessory Character............................103
          1.1.2  Disadvantages of the Accessory Character........................106
          1.1.3  The Consequences of the Accessory Character
                 for the Assessment Methods......................................108
          1.1.4  Significance of the Twelfth Protocol............................110
     1.2  Content and Scope of the Prohibition of Discrimination.................111
          1.2.1  Grounds for Distinction; Requirement of 
                 Unequal Treatment on the Basis of a 
                 Personal Characteristic.........................................111
          1.2.2  Dealing with the Substance of Claims under 
                 Article 14......................................................113
     1.3  Direct and Indirect Unequal Treatment; Formal and 
          Substantive Equality...................................................113
          1.3.1  Direct and Indirect Unequal Treatment...........................113
          1.3.2  Formal and Substantive Equality.................................115
     1.4  Only Assessment of Claims Directed against the 
          Government.............................................................117
     1.5  Case-based Assessment by the Court.....................................118
  2  The Assessment Model........................................................121
     2.1  Development and Content of the Assessment Model........................121
     2.2  Comparability as a First-phase Test....................................127
          2.2.1  Assessment Standards when Judging
                 Comparability...................................................127
          2.2.2  Omission of the Comparability Test in 
                 Specific Cases..................................................129
          2.2.3  The Test of Disadvantage as an Alternative
                 for the Comparability Test......................................135
     2.3  Assessment of the Presence of a Legitimate Aim.........................137
          2.3.1  Determining the Aim of the Distinction..........................137
          2.3.2  Justification of the Aims Pursued...............................140
     2.4  Assessment of the Relationship between Goal and Means:
          Proportionality in the Broad Sense.....................................144
          2.4.1  Content and Application of the 
                 Goal-means Test and Article 14..................................144
          2.4.2  Application of the Goal-means Test with
                 Respect to Substantive Provisions of the 
                 Convention......................................................149
     2.5  Suitability............................................................152
          2.5.1  The Suitability Test with Respect to Substantive
                 Convention Provisions...........................................152
          2.5.2  The Suitability Test with Respect to Article 14.................153
     2.6  Subsidiarity and Necessity.............................................154
          2.6.1  Subsidiarity and Necessity with Respect to
                 Substantive Convention Provisions...............................154
          2.6.2  Subsidiarity and Necessity when Assessing
                 against Article 14..............................................157
     2.7  Proportionality in the Strict Sense....................................160
     2.8  A Missing Criterion: Assessment of Over- and
          Underinclusiveness.....................................................162
     2.9  Conclusion.............................................................164
  3  Intensity of the Assessment and the Margin of Appreciation..................165
     3.1  Introduction...........................................................165
          3.1.1  Content of the Margin of Appreciation Doctrine..................165
          3.1.2  Basis for Accepting the Margin of Appreciation
                 Doctrine........................................................166
          3.1.3  Significance of the Margin of Appreciation
                 for the Intensity of the Assessment.............................169
     3.2  Factors Determining the Scope of the Margin of 
          Appreciation...........................................................170
          3.2.1  Introduction....................................................170
          3.2.2  The "Common Ground" Factor: the Existence
                 of a European Consensus.........................................171
          3.2.3  The "Better Placed"  Argument...................................180
          3.2.4  The Character and the Weight of the Aims
                 Pursued.........................................................182
          3.2.5  Context of the Measure in Question..............................185
          3.2.6  The Importance of the Affected Right:
                 Fundamental Interests and Core Rights...........................187
          3.2.7  Nature of the Interference......................................192
          3.2.8  Balancing the Intensity-determining Factors.....................194
     3.3  Intensity of the Assessment and Article 14:
          The "Very Weighty Reasons" Doctrine....................................199
          3.3.1  Translating the Margin of Appreciation
                 Doctrine into a Very Weighty Reasons Doctrine...................199
          3.3.2  Criterion for the Applicability of the Very
                 Weighty Reasons Doctrine: Ground of 
                 Distinction.....................................................201
          3.3.3  Conclusion......................................................207
  4  Conclusions.................................................................209
     4.1  Conclusions Relating to the Assessment Methods.........................209
          4.1.1  Introduction....................................................209
          4.1.2  Assessment in the First Phase:
                 the Comparability Test..........................................210
          4.1.3  The Second Phase of the Assessment:
                 Application of the Justification Model..........................215
     4.2  Conclusions Relating to the Intensity of the Assessment................218
          4.2.1  Method of the Court, Levels of Intensity
                 and Influence on the Assessment Methods.........................218
          4.2.2  Factors that Determine the Intensity of 
                 the Assessment..................................................220

Chapter 4  Assessment by the European Court of Justice
  against the Principle of Equality
  1  General.....................................................................223
     1.1  Content and Background of the Principle of 
          Equality in Community Law..............................................223
          1.1.1  The EC Treaty and the Principle of Equality.....................223
          1.1.2  Background and Meaning of the Principle
                 of Equality in European Law.....................................224
     1.2  Direct and Indirect Distinctions; Formal and
          Substantive Inequality.................................................227
          1.2.1  Direct and Indirect Distinctions................................227
          1.2.2  Formal and Substantive Inequality...............................230
     1.3  Horizontal and Vertical Relations......................................232
     1.4  Nature of the Procedure in which the Equality
          Principle Plays a Role.................................................235
     1.5  Structure of this Chapter..............................................236
  2  The Assessment Models.......................................................238
     2.1  General Description of the Assessment Models...........................238
          2.1.1  The Assessment Model with Distinctions
                 Based on Gender.................................................238
          2.1.2  The Assessment Model for Distinctions in the 
                 Field of the Common Agricultural Policy.........................240
          2.1.3  The Assessment Model in the Case of 
                 Distinctions Based on Nationality...............................245
     2.2  The First Phase of Assessment: Comparability and
          Disadvantage...........................................................247
          2.2.1  Comparability and Disadvantage with Unequal
                 Treatment Based on Gender.......................................247
          2.2.2  Comparability and Disadvantage in the Field 
                 of Agriculture..................................................253
          2.2.3  Comparability and Disadvantage with Unequal
                 Treatment Based on Nationality..................................260
          2.2.4  Applications of the Comparability Test with
                 Article 90 EC...................................................268
     2.3  Assessment of the Goal.................................................270
          2.3.1  Assessment of the Goal with Unequal
                 Treatment Based on Gender.......................................270
          2.3.2  Assessment of the Goal with Unequal
                 Treatment in the Field of Agriculture...........................277
          2.3.3  Assessment of the Goal with Unequal
                 Treatment Based on Nationality..................................280
          2.3.4  Assessment of the Goal with Article 90 EC.......................283
          2.3.5  Conclusions.....................................................286
     2.4  Assessment of Suitability, Subsidiarity and Proportionality............287
          2.4.1  Assessment of Suitability, Subsidiarity and
                 Proportionality with Unequal Treatment
                 Based on Gender.................................................287
          2.4.2  Assessment of Suitability, Necessity and
                 Proportionality with Unequal Treatment
                 in the Field of Agriculture.....................................290
          2.4.3  Assessment of Suitability, Subsidiarity and
                 Proportionality with Unequal Treatment
                 Based on Nationality............................................300
     2.5  Missing Element in the Assessment by the ECJ:
          Assessment of the Degree of Fit........................................305
  3  Intensity of the Assessment.................................................307 
     3.1  General................................................................307
     3.2  Intensity of the Assessment with Unequal Treatment
          Based on Gender........................................................308
          3.2.1  Introduction....................................................308
          3.2.2  Factors that Determine the Intensity of 
                 the Assessment..................................................309
          3.2.3  Conclusion......................................................309
     3.3  Intensity of the Assessment with Unequal Treatment
          in the Field of Agriculture............................................320
          3.3.1  Introduction....................................................320
          3.3.2  Factors that Determine the Intensity of the 
                 Assessment......................................................321
          3.3.3  Conclusion......................................................329
     3.4  Intensity of the Assessment with Unequal
          Treatment Based on Nationality.........................................330
          3.4.1  Nature and Weight of the Prohibition
                 of Unequal Treatment Based on Nationality.......................330
          3.4.2  Factors which Result in Reduced Intensity of 
                 the Assessment..................................................333
          3.4.3  Conclusion......................................................340
 4.  Conclusions.................................................................342
     4.1  Conclusions Relating to the Assessment Method..........................342
          4.1.1  Consequences of the Background of the 
                 Prohibition of Unequal Treatment................................342
          4.1.2  Horizontal and Vertical Relations:
                 Consequences for the Assessment Methods.........................345
          4.1.3  Assessment in the First Phase:
                 Comparability and Disadvantage..................................346
          4.1.4  The Goal of the Distinction.....................................352
          4.1.5  Degree of Fit, Suitability, Necessity
                 and Proportionality.............................................355
     4.2  Conclusions Relating to the Intensity of the 
          Assessment.............................................................357
          4.2.1  Gradations or Levels of Intensity...............................357
          4.2.2  Factors that Play a Role in the Determination
                 of the Intensity of the Assessment..............................359


Chapter 5  Assessment Against the Equal Protection Clause
  by the Supreme Court
   1  Introduction...............................................................365
      1.1  Background and Scope of the Equal Protection Clause...................365
           1.1.1  Development and Significance of the 
                  Fourteenth Amendment...........................................365
           1.1.2  Extension of the Scope to Include
                  Infringements of all Interests and Rights......................367
           1.1.3  Extension of the Scope from Race to
                  Other Grounds of Distinction...................................369
           1.1.4  Formal or Substantive equality; Direct
                  and Indirect Distinctions......................................371
           1.1.5  Applicability of the Equal Protection Clause
                  in all Situations..............................................374
      1.2  Relationship Between the Federal System and the States................375
           1.2.1  Consequences of the Federal System for the 
                  Supreme Court's Position.......................................375
           1.2.2  Application of the Equal Protection Clause
                  to the Federal Government......................................376
      1.3  Horizontal Effect.....................................................379
           1.3.1  The Fourteenth Amendment and the 
                  Necessity of State Action......................................379
           1.3.2  Horizontal Effect: The Civil Rights Act 1964...................381
      1.4  Procedure of the Supreme Court........................................383
      1.5  Assessment Methods of the Supreme Court
           and Structure of the Chapter..........................................388
   2  Assessment Methods.........................................................389
      2.1  General Survey of the Tests Used by the
           Supreme Court.........................................................389
           2.1.1  The Rational Basis Test........................................389
           2.1.2  Rational BASIS "with Bite".....................................393
           2.1.3  The Strict Scrutiny Test.......................................395
           2.1.4  The Intermediate Scrutiny Test.................................398
      2.2  First-phase Assessment: Comparability, Disadvantage
           and Intent............................................................401
           2.2.1  Comparability..................................................401
           2.2.2  Direct Unequal Treatment: The Existence
                  of a Classification as a First-phase Test......................407
           2.2.3  Indirect Unequal Treatment: Effect and 
                  Intent as a First-phase Test...................................413
      2.3  Assessment of the Presence of a Justified Aim.........................427
           2.3.1  Manner of Establishing the Purpose.............................427
           2.3.2  Plurality of Purposes..........................................434
           2.3.3  Assessment of the Legitimacy of the Purpose....................437
      2.4  Assessment of the Relationship Between
           Purpose and Means.....................................................448
           2.4.1  Introduction...................................................448
           2.4.2  Assessment of the Degree of Fit................................448
           2.4.3  Assessment of Suitability......................................453
           2.4.4  Assessment of Necessity and Subsidiarity.......................457
           2.4.5  Assessment of Proportionality in the Strict Sense..............460
   3  Intensity of the Assessment................................................465
      3.1  Introduction..........................................................465
      3.2  Theoretical Underpinning of Differentiation in
           the Intensity of the Assessment.......................................467
      3.3  Factors Relating to the Difference in Treatment.......................470
           3.3.1  Factors Relating to the Disadvantaged Group....................470
           3.3.2  Factors Relating to the Ground of Distinction..................479
           3.3.3  Balancing of Factors Relating to the 
                  Distinction as such............................................482
      3.4  Impairment of Fundamental Rights as Justification
           for Strict Scrutiny...................................................486
           3.4.1  Recognition of Individual Fundamental
                  Rights as Justification for Strict Scrutiny....................486
           3.4.2  Recognition of Political Rights as
                  Justification for Strict Scrutiny..............................488
           3.4.3  Changes in the Case Law: Constitutional
                  Rights and Basis for Heightened Scrutiny.......................490
           3.4.3  Seriousness of the Impairment..................................493
      3.5  Other Factors Affecting the Level of Intensity........................495
           3.5.1  Introduction...................................................495
           3.5.2  Presence of Discretion, Nature of the Policy
                  Field and the Better Placed Argument...........................496
           3.5.3  Context of the Distinction.....................................497
           3.5.4  Relationship Between the States and the 
                  Federal Government; Subsidiarity Argument......................499
           3.5.5  Distinctions of an Unusual Character...........................501
   4  Conclusions................................................................502
      4.1  Conclusions Relating to the Assessment Methods........................502
           4.1.1  Introduction...................................................502
           4.1.2  Assessment in the First Phase: Comparability,
                  Disadvantage and Intent........................................502
           4.1.3  Assessment of the Purpose......................................506
           4.1.4  Assessment of the Relationship between
                  Purpose and Means..............................................508
      4.2  Conclusions in Respect of the Level of Intensity......................511
           4.2.1  Levels of Intensity............................................511
           4.2.2  Factors Determining the Level of Intensity.....................513

Chapter 6 Assessment Against the Principle of Equality
  in the Netherlands
   1  General....................................................................517
      1.1  Equality Provisions in Dutch Law......................................517
           1.1.1  Introduction...................................................517
           1.1.2  Article 1 of the Dutch Constitution............................518
           1.1.3  Equality Provisions in International Treaties..................519
           1.1.4  Equality Provisions in European Law............................522
           1.1.5  Equality Provisions in Dutch Legislation.......................523
           1.1.6  The Principle of Equality as General
                  Principle of Proper Administration.............................525
      1.2  Situations in which Distinctions are Made.............................528
      1.3  Direct and Indirect Distinctions; Formal and
           Substantive Inequality................................................529
           1.3.1  Formal and Substantive Inequality..............................529
           1.3.2  Direct and Indirect Distinctions...............................531
      1.4  Horizontal and Vertical Effect........................................534
      1.5  Differences Between the Courts and Tribunals
           Competent to Assess Unequal Treatment;
           Structure of the Chapter..............................................537
   2  Assessment Methods.........................................................540
      2.1  General Description of the Methods of the 
           Various Courts Analysed...............................................540         
           2.1.1  Assessment Methods of the Dutch Supreme
                  Court--Civil and Criminal Divisions............................540
           2.1.2  Assessment of the Dutch Supreme Court--Tax
                  Division.......................................................546
           2.1.3  Assessment Methods of the Administrative
                  Law Division...................................................554
           2.1.4  Assessment Methods of the Central Appeals
                  Tribunal.......................................................556
           2.1.5  Assessment Methods of the Equal Treatment
                  Commission.....................................................561
      2.2  Comparability and Disadvantage in Dutch Case Law......................564
           2.2.1  Introduction...................................................564
           2.2.2  The Comparability Test as First-phase Test.....................565
           2.2.3  The Disadvantage Test as a First-phase Test....................573
      2.3  Assessment of the Aim.................................................586
           2.3.1  Introduction...................................................586
           2.3.2  Establishment of the Aim.......................................587
           2.3.3  Assessment of the Justifiability of the Aim....................593
      2.4  Assessment of the Relationship between Aim
           and Distinction.......................................................608
           2.4.1  Degree of Fit (Over- and Underinclusiveness)
                  and Assessment of the Proxy....................................608
           2.4.2  Suitability....................................................614
           2.4.3  Necessity and Subsidiarity.....................................616
           2.4.4  Proportionality in the Strict Sense............................622
   3  Intensity of the Assessment................................................630
      3.1  Variation in the Level of Intensity in the Netherlands................630
      3.2  Factors that Determine the Level of Intensity.........................634
           3.2.1  Introduction...................................................634
           3.2.2  Factors that Relate to the Division of Powers..................634
           3.2.3  Other Factors that may Affect the Level
                  of Intensity...................................................640
           3.2.4  The Balancing of the Various Factors..