I. INTRODUCTION = 10
II. PRACTICE OF TORTURE BY NON-STATE ACTORS = 13
1. Non-state actors and Torture: Clarifying terminology = 14
1.1. Who are non-state actors? = 14
1.2. Can non-state actors commit torture as a matter of international law? = 16
Summary = 20
2. Prevalence and purpose of torture committed by de facto regimes and armed groups = 20
3. Methods of torture used by non-state actors = 25
4. Victims of torture by non-state actors = 30
5. Impact on victims = 31
Summary = 33
III. ENSURING RESPECT FOR THE PROHIBITION OF TORTURE IN RELATION TO NON-STATE ACTORS = 34
1. Gaps in the legal framework applying to non-state actors = 34
1.1. National law and practice = 34
1.2. International legal framework and mechanisms applying directly to non-state actors = 35
Summary = 42
1.3. Limited reach of state responsibility for violations by non-state actors = 42
Summary = 48
2. The prohibition of torture applied to non-state actors = 49
2.1. State Responses = 49
Summary = 60
2.2. Responses by non-state actors = 61
Summary = 66
2.2. International Responses = 67
Summary = 71
2.3. International justice through third countries: Universal jurisdiction = 72
Summary = 77
IV. STANDARDS AND MECHANISMS REVISITED: TAKING EFFECTIVE STEPS TO ENSURE PROTECTION, ACCOUNTABILITY AND REPARATION FOR TORTURE BY NON-STATE ACTORS = 79
1. Clarifying and developing relevant international standards = 79
2. Developing and strengthening international mechanisms = 81
3. Strengthening domestic enforcement of the prohibition for torture by non-state actors = 84
4. Furthering compliance with relevant international standards by de facto regimes, armed groups and other non-state actors = 85
5. Strategies for survivors and NGOs acting on their behalf: Seeking protection, accountability and reparation for torture by non-state actors = 87
V. TABLE OF AUTHORITIES = 90
II. PRACTICE OF TORTURE BY NON-STATE ACTORS = 13
1. Non-state actors and Torture: Clarifying terminology = 14
1.1. Who are non-state actors? = 14
1.2. Can non-state actors commit torture as a matter of international law? = 16
Summary = 20
2. Prevalence and purpose of torture committed by de facto regimes and armed groups = 20
3. Methods of torture used by non-state actors = 25
4. Victims of torture by non-state actors = 30
5. Impact on victims = 31
Summary = 33
III. ENSURING RESPECT FOR THE PROHIBITION OF TORTURE IN RELATION TO NON-STATE ACTORS = 34
1. Gaps in the legal framework applying to non-state actors = 34
1.1. National law and practice = 34
1.2. International legal framework and mechanisms applying directly to non-state actors = 35
Summary = 42
1.3. Limited reach of state responsibility for violations by non-state actors = 42
Summary = 48
2. The prohibition of torture applied to non-state actors = 49
2.1. State Responses = 49
Summary = 60
2.2. Responses by non-state actors = 61
Summary = 66
2.2. International Responses = 67
Summary = 71
2.3. International justice through third countries: Universal jurisdiction = 72
Summary = 77
IV. STANDARDS AND MECHANISMS REVISITED: TAKING EFFECTIVE STEPS TO ENSURE PROTECTION, ACCOUNTABILITY AND REPARATION FOR TORTURE BY NON-STATE ACTORS = 79
1. Clarifying and developing relevant international standards = 79
2. Developing and strengthening international mechanisms = 81
3. Strengthening domestic enforcement of the prohibition for torture by non-state actors = 84
4. Furthering compliance with relevant international standards by de facto regimes, armed groups and other non-state actors = 85
5. Strategies for survivors and NGOs acting on their behalf: Seeking protection, accountability and reparation for torture by non-state actors = 87
V. TABLE OF AUTHORITIES = 90