Table of Cases xv
Tables of Treaties, Legislation, and other Relevant Instruments xxiv
Table of Abbreviations xxx
Introduction 1
Globalization 4
Privatization 8
Fragmentation 12
Feminization 15
1 Old Objections and New Approaches 25
1.1 The Expanding Scope of International Law 29
1.2 The Trivialization Argument 33
1.3 The Legal Impossibility Argument 35
1.4 The Policy Tactical Argument 41
1.5 The Legitimization of Violence Argument 46
1.6 The Rights as Barriers to Social Justice Arguments 53
1.7 New Ways of Looking at Human Rights 56
2 Thinking Responsibly about the Subject of Subjects 59
2.1 Subjects as Prisoners of Doctrine 59
2.2 The Reparations for Injuries Opinion, the United Nations, and UN Agencies 63
2.3 Certain Non-Universal Inter-Governmental Organizations 69
2.4 Acquiring Rights and Duties through Capacity rather than Subjectivity 70
2.5 Rights without Remedies-Duties without Jurisdictions 74
2.6 The International Committee of the Red Cross 76
2.7 The Legal Subjectivity of Transnational Corporations 76
2.8 International Capacity Derived from the Rights of Non-State Actors to Complain to International Instances under Treaty Law 81
2.9 Final Remarks on the International Law Obligations of Non-State Actors 82
3 Characteristics of International Human Rights Law 85
3.1 Customary International Law 85
3.2 Jus Cogens or Peremptory Norms of International Law 87
3.3 Human Rights Treaties 91
3.4 International Crimes 94
3.5 Erga Omnes Obligations 96
3.6 Universal Standards 99
3.7 Recategorization of Human Rights Violations and Hybrid Types of Obligation 100
4 The United Nations 109
4.1 The United Nations Organization 110
4.1.1 Obligations on the UN and Other Entities Engaged in Armed Conflict, Multilateral Peace-Keeping, and Peace-Enforcement Operations 110
4.1.2 Claims against UN Peace Operations 115
4.1.3 The Principles and Spirit of General Conventions Applicable to the Conduct of Military Personnel 118
4.1.4 UN Human Rights Obligations and the Issue of Discrimination in Employment 124
4.1.5 UNMIK in Kosovo and the Issue of UN Administration of Territory 128
4.1.6 Action by the UN Security Council 132
4.1.7 Summary of Legal Issues Related to the Human Rights Obligations of the United Nations 136
4.2 The Obligations of the United Nations' International Financial Institutions 137
4.2.1 The Legal Arguments over Human Rights at the World Bank and the IMF 142
4.2.2 The 2001 Opinion of the IMF General Counsel 145
4.2.3 The Content of the Human Rights Obligations of the International Financial Institutions 150
4.2.4 The World Bank's Operational Standards and the Inspection Panel 152
4.2.5 The World Bank Inspection Panel and the Chad Pipeline Report 153
4.2.6 International Investment Protection through ICSID at the World Bank 155
4.2.7 Summary Conclusion Regarding the World Bank and the IMF 157
5 The World Trade Organization and the European Union 161
5.1 The World Trade Organization 161
5.1.1 Decisions by the Panels and Appellate Body 165
5.1.1.1 Protecting Human Rights from the WTO through the Law of Treaty Interpretation 166
5.1.1.2 Trade Sanctions to Protect Human Rights Precluded by WTO Rules 172
5.1.1.3 The Threat to Human Rights and Human Rights Enforcement from WTO Agreements 175
5.1.2 Summary Conclusions Regarding the WTO 177
5.2 The European Community and the European Union 177
5.2.1 The European Community as a Party to Treaties with Human Rights Clauses 178
5.2.2 Obligations on the Community in the Community Legal Order 180
5.2.2.1 The European Union Charter of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 181
5.2.2.2 The European Community before the European Court of Human Rights 185
5.2.2.3 Community Law as the Source of Human Rights Obligations on Non-State Actors 189
5.2.3 Summary Conclusions Regarding the European Community and the European Union 193
6 Corporations and Human Rights 195
6.1 Corporate Responsibility and Corporate Accountability 195
6.2 Transnationals, Multinationals, and National Corporations 199
6.3 The OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises 201
6.3.1 The OECD Guidelines' Implementation Procedures 207
6.4 The Tripartite Declaration of Principles Concerning Multinational Enterprises 211
6.4.1 The Tripartite Declaration's Links to Binding Obligations 213
6.4.2 Implementing the Tripartite Declaration 216
6.5 The UN Global Compact (2000) and the Incorporation of Respect for Human Rights into Business and UN Practices 218
6.6 Initiatives at the UN Sub-Commission and Commission on Human Rights and the General Human Rights Obligations of Corporations 225
6.7 The Role of International Law 237
6.7.1 State Responsibility for Corporations 241
6.7.2 Customary International Law Obligations for Corporations 244
6.7.3 International Treaties that Demand Action against Legal Persons 247
6.8 The Alien Tort Claims Act in the United States 252
6.8.1 Corporate Complicity in Violations of Human Rights Law 254
6.8.2 Corporate Complicity in the Unocal Ruling 255
6.8.3 The Actus Reus of Complicity in the Unocal Case 256
6.8.4 The Mens Rea Required for Complicity in the Unocal Case 257
6.8.5 The Application in the Unocal Case of a Non-Criminal Law Test for Third-Party Liability for Violations of International Law 259
6.8.6 Which Tests to Use for Corporate Human Rights Abuses under International Law: Criminal Law or Civil (Tort) Law? 261
6.8.7 Wiwa v Shell and the Issue of Complicity in International Torts 262
6.9 The Test for State Responsibility for State Complicity 263
6.10 Summary on Corporate Complicity in Human Rights Abuses under International Law 265
6.11 Final Comments on Corporate Responsibility under International Law 266
7 Non-State Actors in Times of Armed Conflict 271
7.1 Rebels, Insurgents, and Belligerents 271
7.2 National Liberation Movements 273
7.3 Rebel Groups, Unrecognized Insurgents, Armed Opposition Groups, Parties to an Internal Armed Conflict, etc. 275
7.4 Successful Insurrectional and other Movements 285
7.5 Practical Steps taken to Ensure Respect for Human Rights by Non-State Actors in Times of Armed Conflict 286
7.5.1 The Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict 289
7.5.2 Geneva Call 291
7.5.2.1 The Commitment as a Step towards Recognizing the Human Rights Obligations of Non-State Actors 293
7.5.2.2 The Scope of the Obligations in the Commitment 295
7.5.2.3 Accountability and Monitoring 295
7.6 Private Security Firms and the Issue of Mercenaries 299
7.6.1 Recent Controversies Concerning the Use of Private Military/Security Firms 301
7.6.2 Accountability for Human Rights Abuses 303
7.6.3 The Incorporation of Human Rights Obligations into National Licensing Regimes 307
7.7 The Role of Humanitarian Organizations 310
7.7.1 The Question of Human Rights Denunciations by Humanitarian Organizations 310
7.7.2 The Human Rights Obligations of Humanitarian Organizations 312
8 Selected UN Human Rights Treaties 317
8.1 International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination 319
8.2 Convention on the Rights of the Child 322
8.3 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 324
8.4 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 328
8.5 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women 333
8.6 Refugee Law 335
8.7 Convention against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment 342
9 Regional Human Rights Bodies 347
9.1 The European Court of Human Rights 349
9.1.1 Article 1 Obligation to Secure Human Rights to Everyone within the Jurisdiction 352
9.1.2 Article 13 Right to an Effective Remedy 357
9.1.3 Article 2 Right to Life 358
9.1.3.1 The Commission Finds that Non-State Actor Killings Come within the Scope of Article 2 359
9.1.3.2 The Court Develops Critieria for the Duty to Protect the Right to Life from Non-State Actors 361
9.1.3.3 The Court Develops a Duty to Prevent, Investigate, and Ensure Accountability for Killings by Non-State Actors 366
9.1.3.4 The Scope of the Human Rights Obligations of Non-State Actors with Regard to the Right to Life 368
9.1.3.5 Summary Concerning Article 2 372
9.1.4 Article 3 Prohibition of Torture 372
9.1.4.1 Protection of Children and the Prosecution of Rape 373
9.1.4.2 Protection from Violent Non-State Actors Abroad 376
9.1.5 Article 4 Prohibition of Slavery and Forced Labour 380
9.1.6 Article 6 and the Right to Fair Trial 384
9.1.7 Article 7 Non-Retroactivity of Criminal Law for Individual Offences 385
9.1.8 Article 8 Right to Respect for Private and Family Life 387
9.1.8.1 Protection from Violence to the Person and the Home 387
9.1.8.2 Protection from Pollution 389
9.1.8.3 Invasions of Privacy by Photographers and the Media 394
9.1.9 Article 9 Freedom of Thought, Conscience, and Religion 400
9.1.10 Article 10 Freedom of Expression and the Role of Article 17 405
9.1.11 Article 11 Rights to Assembly and Association 411
9.1.11.1 Freedom of Assembly 411
9.1.11.2 Freedom of Association 413
9.1.12 Other Rights under the Convention and its Protocols 418
9.1.13 Concluding Remarks on the European Convention 419
9.2 The Inter-American system 421
9.2.1 The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights and its Action with Regard to Acts of Violence by 'Irregular Armed Groups' 421
9.2.2 Petitions to the Inter-American Commission and the Jurisprudence of the Court of Human Rights 424
9.2.3 The Advisory Opinion on the Rights of Migrant Workers 429
9.3 The African Approach under the OAU Human Rights Treaties 432
9.4 Final Remarks on the Approach of the Regional Bodies 436
10 National Legal Orders 437
10.1 Human Rights Complaints against Non-State Actors Acting in a Non-Governmental Way 441
10.1.1 The Alien Tort claims Act in the United States 443
10.1.1.1 The US Courts' Application of the ATS Subsequent to the Supreme Court's Judgment in Sosa 447
10.1.2 The South African Constitution 450
10.1.2.1 The Constitutional Court's Approach in Du Plessis v De Klerk 451
10.1.2.2 The 1996 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 457
10.2 Non-State Actors with a Public Function or State Nexus 460
10.2.1 The Human Rights Act 1998 in the United Kingdom 464
10.2.1.1 Parliamentary Debates and Ministerial Statements 464
10.2.1.2 Cases before the UK Courts 474
10.2.1.3 Policy Arguments Concerning the Public/Private Divide in the Human Rights Act 482
10.2.2 US State Action Cases before the Supreme Court 486
10.2.2.1 Racial Discrimination by Private Entities 486
10.2.2.2 Due Process before Private Decision-Makers 487
10.2.2.3 Freedom of Expression 488
10.2.2.4 Cruel and Unusual Punishment, Privatized Prisons, and the Rejection of Functional Tests 494
10.3 Interpretation of the Law in Conformity with Human Rights 499
10.3.1 Statutory Interpretation 500
10.3.1.1 Hong Kong 500
10.3.1.2 The United Kingdom 503
10.3.2 A Court Itself is Bound to Act in Conformity with Human Rights Law 506
10.3.3 The Court Develops the Common Law 512
10.3.3.1 The United Kingdom 512
10.3.3.2 South Africa 518
10.3.3.3 Canada 520
10.3.4 Reliance on Human Rights to Explain the Scope of Certain Values in National Law 521
10.4 Invoking Positive Obligations 523
10.5 Limits to Human Rights in the Private Sphere 526
10.5.1 Subsidiarity and Complementarity as Tools for Limiting the Human Rights Obligations of Non-State Actors 526
10.5.2 The Availability of Non-Human Rights Remedies and the Question of Cost 527
10.5.3 An Instinctive Understanding of the Limits of Non-State Actor Obligations through Emphasis on the Rights of the Non-State Actor 529
11 Dignity and Democracy 533
11.1 Dignity 535
11.1.1 Philosophical Foundations of Dignity 535
11.1.2 Protection of Dignity as an End in Itself 538
11.1.3 The Dignity Paradox 544
11.2 Democracy 548
11.2.1 The Democracy Paradox 550
11.3 An Example: Freedom of Religion and Corporal Punishment in Private Schools 555
11.4 Summary Regarding Dignity and Democracy 558
12 Complexity, Complicity, and Complementarity 561
12.1 Complexity 561
12.2 Complicity 563
12.3 Complementarity 565
12.4 Final Comments 566
Bibliography 567
Index 601
Tables of Treaties, Legislation, and other Relevant Instruments xxiv
Table of Abbreviations xxx
Introduction 1
Globalization 4
Privatization 8
Fragmentation 12
Feminization 15
1 Old Objections and New Approaches 25
1.1 The Expanding Scope of International Law 29
1.2 The Trivialization Argument 33
1.3 The Legal Impossibility Argument 35
1.4 The Policy Tactical Argument 41
1.5 The Legitimization of Violence Argument 46
1.6 The Rights as Barriers to Social Justice Arguments 53
1.7 New Ways of Looking at Human Rights 56
2 Thinking Responsibly about the Subject of Subjects 59
2.1 Subjects as Prisoners of Doctrine 59
2.2 The Reparations for Injuries Opinion, the United Nations, and UN Agencies 63
2.3 Certain Non-Universal Inter-Governmental Organizations 69
2.4 Acquiring Rights and Duties through Capacity rather than Subjectivity 70
2.5 Rights without Remedies-Duties without Jurisdictions 74
2.6 The International Committee of the Red Cross 76
2.7 The Legal Subjectivity of Transnational Corporations 76
2.8 International Capacity Derived from the Rights of Non-State Actors to Complain to International Instances under Treaty Law 81
2.9 Final Remarks on the International Law Obligations of Non-State Actors 82
3 Characteristics of International Human Rights Law 85
3.1 Customary International Law 85
3.2 Jus Cogens or Peremptory Norms of International Law 87
3.3 Human Rights Treaties 91
3.4 International Crimes 94
3.5 Erga Omnes Obligations 96
3.6 Universal Standards 99
3.7 Recategorization of Human Rights Violations and Hybrid Types of Obligation 100
4 The United Nations 109
4.1 The United Nations Organization 110
4.1.1 Obligations on the UN and Other Entities Engaged in Armed Conflict, Multilateral Peace-Keeping, and Peace-Enforcement Operations 110
4.1.2 Claims against UN Peace Operations 115
4.1.3 The Principles and Spirit of General Conventions Applicable to the Conduct of Military Personnel 118
4.1.4 UN Human Rights Obligations and the Issue of Discrimination in Employment 124
4.1.5 UNMIK in Kosovo and the Issue of UN Administration of Territory 128
4.1.6 Action by the UN Security Council 132
4.1.7 Summary of Legal Issues Related to the Human Rights Obligations of the United Nations 136
4.2 The Obligations of the United Nations' International Financial Institutions 137
4.2.1 The Legal Arguments over Human Rights at the World Bank and the IMF 142
4.2.2 The 2001 Opinion of the IMF General Counsel 145
4.2.3 The Content of the Human Rights Obligations of the International Financial Institutions 150
4.2.4 The World Bank's Operational Standards and the Inspection Panel 152
4.2.5 The World Bank Inspection Panel and the Chad Pipeline Report 153
4.2.6 International Investment Protection through ICSID at the World Bank 155
4.2.7 Summary Conclusion Regarding the World Bank and the IMF 157
5 The World Trade Organization and the European Union 161
5.1 The World Trade Organization 161
5.1.1 Decisions by the Panels and Appellate Body 165
5.1.1.1 Protecting Human Rights from the WTO through the Law of Treaty Interpretation 166
5.1.1.2 Trade Sanctions to Protect Human Rights Precluded by WTO Rules 172
5.1.1.3 The Threat to Human Rights and Human Rights Enforcement from WTO Agreements 175
5.1.2 Summary Conclusions Regarding the WTO 177
5.2 The European Community and the European Union 177
5.2.1 The European Community as a Party to Treaties with Human Rights Clauses 178
5.2.2 Obligations on the Community in the Community Legal Order 180
5.2.2.1 The European Union Charter of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 181
5.2.2.2 The European Community before the European Court of Human Rights 185
5.2.2.3 Community Law as the Source of Human Rights Obligations on Non-State Actors 189
5.2.3 Summary Conclusions Regarding the European Community and the European Union 193
6 Corporations and Human Rights 195
6.1 Corporate Responsibility and Corporate Accountability 195
6.2 Transnationals, Multinationals, and National Corporations 199
6.3 The OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises 201
6.3.1 The OECD Guidelines' Implementation Procedures 207
6.4 The Tripartite Declaration of Principles Concerning Multinational Enterprises 211
6.4.1 The Tripartite Declaration's Links to Binding Obligations 213
6.4.2 Implementing the Tripartite Declaration 216
6.5 The UN Global Compact (2000) and the Incorporation of Respect for Human Rights into Business and UN Practices 218
6.6 Initiatives at the UN Sub-Commission and Commission on Human Rights and the General Human Rights Obligations of Corporations 225
6.7 The Role of International Law 237
6.7.1 State Responsibility for Corporations 241
6.7.2 Customary International Law Obligations for Corporations 244
6.7.3 International Treaties that Demand Action against Legal Persons 247
6.8 The Alien Tort Claims Act in the United States 252
6.8.1 Corporate Complicity in Violations of Human Rights Law 254
6.8.2 Corporate Complicity in the Unocal Ruling 255
6.8.3 The Actus Reus of Complicity in the Unocal Case 256
6.8.4 The Mens Rea Required for Complicity in the Unocal Case 257
6.8.5 The Application in the Unocal Case of a Non-Criminal Law Test for Third-Party Liability for Violations of International Law 259
6.8.6 Which Tests to Use for Corporate Human Rights Abuses under International Law: Criminal Law or Civil (Tort) Law? 261
6.8.7 Wiwa v Shell and the Issue of Complicity in International Torts 262
6.9 The Test for State Responsibility for State Complicity 263
6.10 Summary on Corporate Complicity in Human Rights Abuses under International Law 265
6.11 Final Comments on Corporate Responsibility under International Law 266
7 Non-State Actors in Times of Armed Conflict 271
7.1 Rebels, Insurgents, and Belligerents 271
7.2 National Liberation Movements 273
7.3 Rebel Groups, Unrecognized Insurgents, Armed Opposition Groups, Parties to an Internal Armed Conflict, etc. 275
7.4 Successful Insurrectional and other Movements 285
7.5 Practical Steps taken to Ensure Respect for Human Rights by Non-State Actors in Times of Armed Conflict 286
7.5.1 The Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict 289
7.5.2 Geneva Call 291
7.5.2.1 The Commitment as a Step towards Recognizing the Human Rights Obligations of Non-State Actors 293
7.5.2.2 The Scope of the Obligations in the Commitment 295
7.5.2.3 Accountability and Monitoring 295
7.6 Private Security Firms and the Issue of Mercenaries 299
7.6.1 Recent Controversies Concerning the Use of Private Military/Security Firms 301
7.6.2 Accountability for Human Rights Abuses 303
7.6.3 The Incorporation of Human Rights Obligations into National Licensing Regimes 307
7.7 The Role of Humanitarian Organizations 310
7.7.1 The Question of Human Rights Denunciations by Humanitarian Organizations 310
7.7.2 The Human Rights Obligations of Humanitarian Organizations 312
8 Selected UN Human Rights Treaties 317
8.1 International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination 319
8.2 Convention on the Rights of the Child 322
8.3 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 324
8.4 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 328
8.5 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women 333
8.6 Refugee Law 335
8.7 Convention against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment 342
9 Regional Human Rights Bodies 347
9.1 The European Court of Human Rights 349
9.1.1 Article 1 Obligation to Secure Human Rights to Everyone within the Jurisdiction 352
9.1.2 Article 13 Right to an Effective Remedy 357
9.1.3 Article 2 Right to Life 358
9.1.3.1 The Commission Finds that Non-State Actor Killings Come within the Scope of Article 2 359
9.1.3.2 The Court Develops Critieria for the Duty to Protect the Right to Life from Non-State Actors 361
9.1.3.3 The Court Develops a Duty to Prevent, Investigate, and Ensure Accountability for Killings by Non-State Actors 366
9.1.3.4 The Scope of the Human Rights Obligations of Non-State Actors with Regard to the Right to Life 368
9.1.3.5 Summary Concerning Article 2 372
9.1.4 Article 3 Prohibition of Torture 372
9.1.4.1 Protection of Children and the Prosecution of Rape 373
9.1.4.2 Protection from Violent Non-State Actors Abroad 376
9.1.5 Article 4 Prohibition of Slavery and Forced Labour 380
9.1.6 Article 6 and the Right to Fair Trial 384
9.1.7 Article 7 Non-Retroactivity of Criminal Law for Individual Offences 385
9.1.8 Article 8 Right to Respect for Private and Family Life 387
9.1.8.1 Protection from Violence to the Person and the Home 387
9.1.8.2 Protection from Pollution 389
9.1.8.3 Invasions of Privacy by Photographers and the Media 394
9.1.9 Article 9 Freedom of Thought, Conscience, and Religion 400
9.1.10 Article 10 Freedom of Expression and the Role of Article 17 405
9.1.11 Article 11 Rights to Assembly and Association 411
9.1.11.1 Freedom of Assembly 411
9.1.11.2 Freedom of Association 413
9.1.12 Other Rights under the Convention and its Protocols 418
9.1.13 Concluding Remarks on the European Convention 419
9.2 The Inter-American system 421
9.2.1 The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights and its Action with Regard to Acts of Violence by 'Irregular Armed Groups' 421
9.2.2 Petitions to the Inter-American Commission and the Jurisprudence of the Court of Human Rights 424
9.2.3 The Advisory Opinion on the Rights of Migrant Workers 429
9.3 The African Approach under the OAU Human Rights Treaties 432
9.4 Final Remarks on the Approach of the Regional Bodies 436
10 National Legal Orders 437
10.1 Human Rights Complaints against Non-State Actors Acting in a Non-Governmental Way 441
10.1.1 The Alien Tort claims Act in the United States 443
10.1.1.1 The US Courts' Application of the ATS Subsequent to the Supreme Court's Judgment in Sosa 447
10.1.2 The South African Constitution 450
10.1.2.1 The Constitutional Court's Approach in Du Plessis v De Klerk 451
10.1.2.2 The 1996 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 457
10.2 Non-State Actors with a Public Function or State Nexus 460
10.2.1 The Human Rights Act 1998 in the United Kingdom 464
10.2.1.1 Parliamentary Debates and Ministerial Statements 464
10.2.1.2 Cases before the UK Courts 474
10.2.1.3 Policy Arguments Concerning the Public/Private Divide in the Human Rights Act 482
10.2.2 US State Action Cases before the Supreme Court 486
10.2.2.1 Racial Discrimination by Private Entities 486
10.2.2.2 Due Process before Private Decision-Makers 487
10.2.2.3 Freedom of Expression 488
10.2.2.4 Cruel and Unusual Punishment, Privatized Prisons, and the Rejection of Functional Tests 494
10.3 Interpretation of the Law in Conformity with Human Rights 499
10.3.1 Statutory Interpretation 500
10.3.1.1 Hong Kong 500
10.3.1.2 The United Kingdom 503
10.3.2 A Court Itself is Bound to Act in Conformity with Human Rights Law 506
10.3.3 The Court Develops the Common Law 512
10.3.3.1 The United Kingdom 512
10.3.3.2 South Africa 518
10.3.3.3 Canada 520
10.3.4 Reliance on Human Rights to Explain the Scope of Certain Values in National Law 521
10.4 Invoking Positive Obligations 523
10.5 Limits to Human Rights in the Private Sphere 526
10.5.1 Subsidiarity and Complementarity as Tools for Limiting the Human Rights Obligations of Non-State Actors 526
10.5.2 The Availability of Non-Human Rights Remedies and the Question of Cost 527
10.5.3 An Instinctive Understanding of the Limits of Non-State Actor Obligations through Emphasis on the Rights of the Non-State Actor 529
11 Dignity and Democracy 533
11.1 Dignity 535
11.1.1 Philosophical Foundations of Dignity 535
11.1.2 Protection of Dignity as an End in Itself 538
11.1.3 The Dignity Paradox 544
11.2 Democracy 548
11.2.1 The Democracy Paradox 550
11.3 An Example: Freedom of Religion and Corporal Punishment in Private Schools 555
11.4 Summary Regarding Dignity and Democracy 558
12 Complexity, Complicity, and Complementarity 561
12.1 Complexity 561
12.2 Complicity 563
12.3 Complementarity 565
12.4 Final Comments 566
Bibliography 567
Index 601