ntroduction 01
PART I: THE CONCEPTUAL AND HISTORICAL FRAMEWORK
1 Concepts and Theories of Remedies 07
1.1 The dual meaning of remedies 07
1.1.1 Access to justice 08
1.1.2 Substantive redress 09
1.2 The purpose of remedies 10
1.2.1 Compensatory or remedial justice 10
1.2.2 Condemnation or retribution 12
1.2.3 Deterrence 13
1.2.4 Restorative justice or reconciliation 14
1.3 Economic analysis of remedies 17
1.4 Conclusions 20
2 Remedies in National Law 22
2.1 The evolution of the law of remedies 23
2.2 The right to a remedy in national laws 27
2.2.1 Express and implied remedial rights 27
2.2.2 Immunity of the state and its agents 30
2.3 Typology of remedies 34
2.3.1 Declaratory judgments 34
2.3.2 Compensation 35
2.3.3 Punitive or exemplary damages 41
2.3.4 Non-monetary remedies 43
2.3.5 Habeas corpus and amparo 47
2.3.6 Attorneys' fees and costs 48
2.4 Conclusions 48
3 Reparations in the Law of State Responsibility 50
3.1 Purpose and kinds of reparations 51
3.2 Jurisprudence on state responsibility 55
3.2.1 International judicial decisions 55
3.2.2 International arbitral claims 56
3.3 State responsibility for injury to aliens 58
3.3.1 Legal basis of claims for injury to aliens 59
3.3.2 Reparations for injury to aliens 62
3.4 ILC articles on state responsibility 84
3.4.1 Restitution 91
3.4.2 Compensation 93
3.4.3 Interest 95
3.5 How human rights cases differ 97
3.6 Conclusions 103
4 The Development of International Human Rights Law 104
4.1 The evolution of international human rights law and institutions 104
4.2 The right to a remedy in human rights instruments 113
4.2.1 Global instruments 114
4.2.2 Regional instruments 122
4.3 UN draft rules on reparations for gross and systematic violations 143
4.4 Norms on redress for victims of crimes 152
4.5 Liability of non-state actors 155
4.5.1 Intergovernmental organizations 156
4.5.2 Business enterprises 158
4.6 International human rights cases in national courts 159
4.6.1 The US Alien Tort Claim Statute and Torture Victim Protection Act 160
4.6.2 Potential liability in Europe for human rights violations abroad 172
4.7 Conclusions 173
PART II: THE INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
5 The Jurisdiction of International Institutions and Tribunals 177
5.1 Introduction 177
5.2 The United Nations system 178
5.2.1 United Nations organs and subsidiary bodies 178
5.2.2 United Nations treaty bodies 183
5.2.3 UNESCO 187
5.2.4 The International Labor Organization 188
5.3 Regional Human Rights Systems 189
5.3.1 The European human rights system 189
5.3.2 The European Social Charter 202
5.3.3 The European Court of Justice 203
5.3.4 The Inter-American system 208
5.3.5 The African human rights system 219
5.4 International administrative tribunals 226
5.5 International criminal tribunals 230
5.5.1 Article 75 of the Rome Statute 233
5.5.2 The Trust Fund 235
5.6 Conclusions 238
6 Procedural Issues 239
6.1 Who may claim redress 239
6.1.1 Individual victims 239
6.1.2 Survivability of claims 242
6.1.3 Allocation of the award 243
6.1.4 Group claims 246
6.2 Presenting claims and proving damages 247
6.3 Conclusions 251
PART III: JURISPRUDENCE AND PRACTICE
7 Declaratory Judgments 255
8 Non-Monetary Remedies 269
8.1 Types of non-monetary remedies 271
8.1.1 Restitution and Rehabilitation 271
8.1.2 Satisfaction 276
8.1.3 Guarantees of non-repetition 278
8.2 International Jurisprudence 280
8.2.1 European Court of Human Rights 280
8.2.2 Inter-American Court and Commission 285
8.3 Assessing the need for non-monetary remedies 289
8.4 Conclusions 290
9 Compensation 291
9.1 Overview 294
9.1.1 The European Court of Human Rights 294
9.1.2 The European Court of Justice 298
9.1.3 The Inter-American Court of Human Rights 299
9.2 Pecuniary damages 301
9.2.1 Loss of life and bodily injury 302
9.2.2 Deprivation of liberty 305
9.2.3 Loss of or damage to property 305
9.3 Non-pecuniary damages 306
9.3.1 Deprivations of life and personal injury 307
9.3.2 Procedural violations 309
9.4 Proyecto de vida 314
9.5 Causation and presumed harm 316
9.6 Valuation and calculation of damages 328
9.6.1 Measuring pecuniary losses 333
9.6.2 Calculating non-pecuniary damages 343
9.7 Inflation, interest, and taxation of damages 348
9.7.1 Discounting and inflation 348
9.7.2 Interest 351
9.7.3 Taxation 352
9.8 Conclusions 352
10 Punitive or Exemplary Damages 354
10.1 Enterprise liability 358
10.2 Awards of punitive damages in human rights cases 360
10.3 Conclusions 366
11 Costs and Fees 368
12 Enforcement of Judgments 380
13 Gross and Systematic Violations 389
13.1 Truth commissions and international investigations 391
13.2 Lustration laws 393
13.3 Prosecutions 394
13.4 Compensation 399
13.4.1 War reparations 400
13.4.2 United Nations Compensation Commission (UNCC) 404
13.4.3 National compensation schemes 412
13.5 Non-monetary remedies 424
13.6 Conclusions 426
14 Reparations for Historical Injustices 428
14.1 Historical injustice claims 429
14.1.1 Wartime violations 429
14.1.2 Discrimination against minorities 439
14.1.3 Colonialism 439
14.1.4 Indigenous peoples 440
14.1.5 Slave reparations 441
14.2 State responses to historical injustice claims 446
14.2.1 Apology 446
14.2.2 Restitution 447
14.2.3 Compensation 448
14.2.4 Rejection 450
14.3 International responses to historical injustice claims 451
14.4 For and against reparations for historical injustices 455
14.4.1 In favour of reparations 456
14.4.2 Against reparations 457
14.4.3 The problem of retroactive application of the law 459
14.5 Conclusions 463
Conclusion 465
Annex: Remedies Awarded by the Inter-American Court 468
Bibliography 478
PART I: THE CONCEPTUAL AND HISTORICAL FRAMEWORK
1 Concepts and Theories of Remedies 07
1.1 The dual meaning of remedies 07
1.1.1 Access to justice 08
1.1.2 Substantive redress 09
1.2 The purpose of remedies 10
1.2.1 Compensatory or remedial justice 10
1.2.2 Condemnation or retribution 12
1.2.3 Deterrence 13
1.2.4 Restorative justice or reconciliation 14
1.3 Economic analysis of remedies 17
1.4 Conclusions 20
2 Remedies in National Law 22
2.1 The evolution of the law of remedies 23
2.2 The right to a remedy in national laws 27
2.2.1 Express and implied remedial rights 27
2.2.2 Immunity of the state and its agents 30
2.3 Typology of remedies 34
2.3.1 Declaratory judgments 34
2.3.2 Compensation 35
2.3.3 Punitive or exemplary damages 41
2.3.4 Non-monetary remedies 43
2.3.5 Habeas corpus and amparo 47
2.3.6 Attorneys' fees and costs 48
2.4 Conclusions 48
3 Reparations in the Law of State Responsibility 50
3.1 Purpose and kinds of reparations 51
3.2 Jurisprudence on state responsibility 55
3.2.1 International judicial decisions 55
3.2.2 International arbitral claims 56
3.3 State responsibility for injury to aliens 58
3.3.1 Legal basis of claims for injury to aliens 59
3.3.2 Reparations for injury to aliens 62
3.4 ILC articles on state responsibility 84
3.4.1 Restitution 91
3.4.2 Compensation 93
3.4.3 Interest 95
3.5 How human rights cases differ 97
3.6 Conclusions 103
4 The Development of International Human Rights Law 104
4.1 The evolution of international human rights law and institutions 104
4.2 The right to a remedy in human rights instruments 113
4.2.1 Global instruments 114
4.2.2 Regional instruments 122
4.3 UN draft rules on reparations for gross and systematic violations 143
4.4 Norms on redress for victims of crimes 152
4.5 Liability of non-state actors 155
4.5.1 Intergovernmental organizations 156
4.5.2 Business enterprises 158
4.6 International human rights cases in national courts 159
4.6.1 The US Alien Tort Claim Statute and Torture Victim Protection Act 160
4.6.2 Potential liability in Europe for human rights violations abroad 172
4.7 Conclusions 173
PART II: THE INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
5 The Jurisdiction of International Institutions and Tribunals 177
5.1 Introduction 177
5.2 The United Nations system 178
5.2.1 United Nations organs and subsidiary bodies 178
5.2.2 United Nations treaty bodies 183
5.2.3 UNESCO 187
5.2.4 The International Labor Organization 188
5.3 Regional Human Rights Systems 189
5.3.1 The European human rights system 189
5.3.2 The European Social Charter 202
5.3.3 The European Court of Justice 203
5.3.4 The Inter-American system 208
5.3.5 The African human rights system 219
5.4 International administrative tribunals 226
5.5 International criminal tribunals 230
5.5.1 Article 75 of the Rome Statute 233
5.5.2 The Trust Fund 235
5.6 Conclusions 238
6 Procedural Issues 239
6.1 Who may claim redress 239
6.1.1 Individual victims 239
6.1.2 Survivability of claims 242
6.1.3 Allocation of the award 243
6.1.4 Group claims 246
6.2 Presenting claims and proving damages 247
6.3 Conclusions 251
PART III: JURISPRUDENCE AND PRACTICE
7 Declaratory Judgments 255
8 Non-Monetary Remedies 269
8.1 Types of non-monetary remedies 271
8.1.1 Restitution and Rehabilitation 271
8.1.2 Satisfaction 276
8.1.3 Guarantees of non-repetition 278
8.2 International Jurisprudence 280
8.2.1 European Court of Human Rights 280
8.2.2 Inter-American Court and Commission 285
8.3 Assessing the need for non-monetary remedies 289
8.4 Conclusions 290
9 Compensation 291
9.1 Overview 294
9.1.1 The European Court of Human Rights 294
9.1.2 The European Court of Justice 298
9.1.3 The Inter-American Court of Human Rights 299
9.2 Pecuniary damages 301
9.2.1 Loss of life and bodily injury 302
9.2.2 Deprivation of liberty 305
9.2.3 Loss of or damage to property 305
9.3 Non-pecuniary damages 306
9.3.1 Deprivations of life and personal injury 307
9.3.2 Procedural violations 309
9.4 Proyecto de vida 314
9.5 Causation and presumed harm 316
9.6 Valuation and calculation of damages 328
9.6.1 Measuring pecuniary losses 333
9.6.2 Calculating non-pecuniary damages 343
9.7 Inflation, interest, and taxation of damages 348
9.7.1 Discounting and inflation 348
9.7.2 Interest 351
9.7.3 Taxation 352
9.8 Conclusions 352
10 Punitive or Exemplary Damages 354
10.1 Enterprise liability 358
10.2 Awards of punitive damages in human rights cases 360
10.3 Conclusions 366
11 Costs and Fees 368
12 Enforcement of Judgments 380
13 Gross and Systematic Violations 389
13.1 Truth commissions and international investigations 391
13.2 Lustration laws 393
13.3 Prosecutions 394
13.4 Compensation 399
13.4.1 War reparations 400
13.4.2 United Nations Compensation Commission (UNCC) 404
13.4.3 National compensation schemes 412
13.5 Non-monetary remedies 424
13.6 Conclusions 426
14 Reparations for Historical Injustices 428
14.1 Historical injustice claims 429
14.1.1 Wartime violations 429
14.1.2 Discrimination against minorities 439
14.1.3 Colonialism 439
14.1.4 Indigenous peoples 440
14.1.5 Slave reparations 441
14.2 State responses to historical injustice claims 446
14.2.1 Apology 446
14.2.2 Restitution 447
14.2.3 Compensation 448
14.2.4 Rejection 450
14.3 International responses to historical injustice claims 451
14.4 For and against reparations for historical injustices 455
14.4.1 In favour of reparations 456
14.4.2 Against reparations 457
14.4.3 The problem of retroactive application of the law 459
14.5 Conclusions 463
Conclusion 465
Annex: Remedies Awarded by the Inter-American Court 468
Bibliography 478