Acknowledgements = v
Chapter I. Introduction = 1
1. The 1951 Convention and the Right to Seek Refugee Status = 2
1.1 The Convention definition of refugee and the principle of non-refoulement = 3
1.1.1. The Convention definition of refugee = 3
1.1.2. The principle of non-refoulement = 5
1.2. The right to seek refugee status = 8
1.2.1. The absence of a right to asylum = 8
1.2.2. The existence of a right to seek refugee status = 9
2. The complementary Role of International Human Rights Law = 11
3. The Development of Community Standards in line with International Refugee and Human Rights Law: a Challenge for the EU = 12
3.1. Towards a common European asylum system = 12
3.2. The challenge for the Union = 15
4. Implications and Scope of the Book = 17
Chapter II. The Legal Framework = 21
1. Intergovernmental Cooperation = 22
1.1. Intergovernmental cooperation prior to the TEU = 22
1.2. The TEU: the institutionalisation of intergovernmental cooperation = 25
1.3. The shortcomings of the intergovernmental framework = 28
1.3.1. The unanimity rule = 29
1.3.2. Absence of legal binding effect = 30
1.3.3. The role of the commission = 31
1.3.4. The lack of parliamentary and judicial control = 32
2. The Communautarisation of Asylum = 35
2.1. The advantages of the Community framework = 35
2.1.1. The involvement of the Community institutions = 35
2.1.2. An improved decision-making process = 36
2.2. Compliance with international standards: an essential pre-requirement = 37
3. The Communautarisation operated by the Treaty of Amsterdam = 38
3.1. The Communautarisation process = 39
3.2. Communautarisation under the Treaty of Amsterdam: an unsatisfactory compromise = 41
4. Conclusion = 46
Chapter III An up to date interpretation of the concept of 'Refugee' = 47
1. The Refugee Definition: An overview = 49
1.1. The meaning of persecution = 50
1.2. The 1951 Convention grounds = 53
1.2.1. Race = 53
1.2.2. Religion = 54
1.2.3. Nationality 55
1.2.4. Membership of a particular social group = 56
1.2.5. Political opinion = 57
1.3. Failure o the State to provide protection = 58
2. Non-State Persecution = 59
2.1. Restrictive interpretations: the French example = 60
2.2. The identity of the perpetrator an irrelevant factor = 64
2.2.1. UNHCR Guidelines = 64
2.2.2. The position of domestic jurisdictions = 65
2.3. The position of the EU = 70
2.3.1. The 1996 Joint Position = 70
2.3.2. The proposal for a Community instrument = 71
3. Gender-related Persecution = 73
3.1. Identification of the problems = 75
3.1.1. Reliance of convention grounds: race, religion, nationality and political opinion = 75
3.1.2. Persecutory laws and discrimination amounting to persecution = 76
3.1.3. Perceptions of violence against women = 78
3.2. Women as members of a particular social group = 80
3.2.1. The concept of particular social group = 80
3.2.2. Membership of a particular social group in gender-related claims = 86
3.2.3. The EU position of gender-related persecution = 98
4. Refugee Status for EC nationals = 100
5. Conclusion = 102
CHAPTER IV. ACCESS TO SWESTANTVE ASYLUM PROCEDURES = 105
1. Restricted Access to the EU Territory = 106
1.1. Document requirements = 106
1.2. Carrier sanctions = 112
2. Transfers of Responsibility = 116
2.1. Internal transfers of responsibility: criteria and mecha- nisms for determining the Member State responsible for examining an asylum claim = 117
2.1 1. The Dublin Convention system ‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 118
2.1.2. The Dublin II Regulation: the answer to the short- comings of the Dublin Convention? = 131
2.2. External transfers of responsibility: removals to third Countries prior to substantive consideration = 141
2.2.1, Country of first asylum, safe third country and safe Country of origin concepts = 142
2.2.2. Readmission agreements and readmission clauses . 15?
3. An Imperative Pre-requirement to Transfers of Responsibility: The 'Safety’ Test = 157
3.1. Safety criteria = 162
3.1.1. Comprehensive protection against refoulement = 162
3.1.2. Observance of international human rights standards = 163
3.1.3. Durable protection in the third country = 164
3.1.4. Access to a fair and effective refugee status deter- mination procedure = 165
3.2. Procedural safeguards = 163
3,2.1.Advancesubstantiatlonofsafety = 165
3.2.2. Individual assessment = 166
3.2.3.Advanceconsenttothetransfer = 166
3.2.4. Right to challenge the decision relating to the transfer = 167
4. Conclusion = 169
CHAPTER V. FAIR AND EFFECTIVE PROCEDURES = 173
1. The Scope of Accelerated Procedures = 176
1.1 Inadmissible applications for asylum = 177
1.2. Unfounded applications for asylum = 178
1.3. Subsequent and border application cases = 180
2. Basic procedural safe guards = 181
2.1. Competent authorities and bodies = 181
2.1.1. Submission authorities = 182
2.1.2. Competent first instance decision-makers = 184
2.1.3. Competent appellate bodies = 187
2.2. The services of an independent, impartial and competent interpreter = 190
2.3. The opportunity to contact a UNHCR representative = 193
2.4. Access to a lawyer: the right to informed legal advice = 195
3. Submission of the Application for Asylum = 198
3.1 Right to be informed on the procedure = 198
3.2. An opportunity to have one's claim lodged as early· as Possible = 200
4. First instance Decision-Making = 201
4.1. The gathering of information = 201
4.1.1 information supplied by the asylum seeker = 201
4.1.2.Colilltryinformation = 205
4.2. Examination of the information = 206
4.3, Additional safeguards = 212
4.3.1.Suspensiveeffect = 212
4.3.2. Right to a decision in writing = 213
5. Challenge of Negative First instance Decisions = 213
5.1 An in-country right of appeal = 214
5.2. Suspensive effect = 215
5.3. Reasonable time limits = 216
6. Conclusion = 217
CHAPTER VI. ASYLUM SEEKERS'TREATMENT PENDING DETERMINA- TION = 219
1. Support for Asylum Seekers = 220
1.1. The characteristics of the Directive on the reception of asylum seekers = 220
1.2 Conditions of eligibility for state support = 222
1.2.1. Personal scope of the Directive = 222
1.2.2. Reduction and withdrawal of state support = 227
1.3. The modalities of start support = 228
1.3.1. Indirect State support: asylum seekers' access to the Labour market = 229
1.3.2.Directstatesupport = 231 2 Detention An Exceptional Measure = 243
2.1. Alternatives to detention = 245
2.2. Cases of justified detention = 246
2.3 Procedural safeguards and detention conditions = 250
2.3.1. Procedural safeguards = 250
2.3.2. Detention conditions = 258
3. Conclusion = 261
CHAPTER Vll. CONCLUSIONS = 263
1. Summary Conclusions: Recommendations for Law Reform = 264
1 1. An updated interpretation of the Convention definition of refugee = 265
1.1 1. The treatment of non-State persecution = 265
1.1.2. The treatment of gender-related persecution = 266
1.1.3. A flexible interpretation of membership of a Particular social group = 267
1.1.4. EC nationals as asylum seekers = 267
1.2. Asylum seekers' access to the EU territory = 268
1.3. Transfers of responsibility in line with international standards = 268
1.3.1. Compliance with safety criteria = 269
1.3.2. The provision of procedural safeguards = 271
1.4. fair and effective asylum procedures = 272
1.4.1. Competent authorities and bodies = 272
1.4.2. The services of an independent, impartial and com- petent interpreter = 274
1.4.3. The opportunity to contact a UNHCR represen- tative = 274
1.4.4. Access to a lawyer: the right to informed legal advice = 274
1.4.5. Submission of the application for asylum = 274
1.4.6. First instance decision-making = 275
1.4.7. The right to challenge negative first instance decisions = 276
1.5. Support for asylum seekers = 277
1.5.1.Eligibilityforstatesupport = 277
1.5.2. The modalities of state support = 278
1.6. The detention of asylum seekers: an exceptional measure = 280
2. Further Issue = 281
2.1. Further issues arising from the right to seek refugee stats = 281
2.2. Further Issues relation to international protection 283
Chapter I. Introduction = 1
1. The 1951 Convention and the Right to Seek Refugee Status = 2
1.1 The Convention definition of refugee and the principle of non-refoulement = 3
1.1.1. The Convention definition of refugee = 3
1.1.2. The principle of non-refoulement = 5
1.2. The right to seek refugee status = 8
1.2.1. The absence of a right to asylum = 8
1.2.2. The existence of a right to seek refugee status = 9
2. The complementary Role of International Human Rights Law = 11
3. The Development of Community Standards in line with International Refugee and Human Rights Law: a Challenge for the EU = 12
3.1. Towards a common European asylum system = 12
3.2. The challenge for the Union = 15
4. Implications and Scope of the Book = 17
Chapter II. The Legal Framework = 21
1. Intergovernmental Cooperation = 22
1.1. Intergovernmental cooperation prior to the TEU = 22
1.2. The TEU: the institutionalisation of intergovernmental cooperation = 25
1.3. The shortcomings of the intergovernmental framework = 28
1.3.1. The unanimity rule = 29
1.3.2. Absence of legal binding effect = 30
1.3.3. The role of the commission = 31
1.3.4. The lack of parliamentary and judicial control = 32
2. The Communautarisation of Asylum = 35
2.1. The advantages of the Community framework = 35
2.1.1. The involvement of the Community institutions = 35
2.1.2. An improved decision-making process = 36
2.2. Compliance with international standards: an essential pre-requirement = 37
3. The Communautarisation operated by the Treaty of Amsterdam = 38
3.1. The Communautarisation process = 39
3.2. Communautarisation under the Treaty of Amsterdam: an unsatisfactory compromise = 41
4. Conclusion = 46
Chapter III An up to date interpretation of the concept of 'Refugee' = 47
1. The Refugee Definition: An overview = 49
1.1. The meaning of persecution = 50
1.2. The 1951 Convention grounds = 53
1.2.1. Race = 53
1.2.2. Religion = 54
1.2.3. Nationality 55
1.2.4. Membership of a particular social group = 56
1.2.5. Political opinion = 57
1.3. Failure o the State to provide protection = 58
2. Non-State Persecution = 59
2.1. Restrictive interpretations: the French example = 60
2.2. The identity of the perpetrator an irrelevant factor = 64
2.2.1. UNHCR Guidelines = 64
2.2.2. The position of domestic jurisdictions = 65
2.3. The position of the EU = 70
2.3.1. The 1996 Joint Position = 70
2.3.2. The proposal for a Community instrument = 71
3. Gender-related Persecution = 73
3.1. Identification of the problems = 75
3.1.1. Reliance of convention grounds: race, religion, nationality and political opinion = 75
3.1.2. Persecutory laws and discrimination amounting to persecution = 76
3.1.3. Perceptions of violence against women = 78
3.2. Women as members of a particular social group = 80
3.2.1. The concept of particular social group = 80
3.2.2. Membership of a particular social group in gender-related claims = 86
3.2.3. The EU position of gender-related persecution = 98
4. Refugee Status for EC nationals = 100
5. Conclusion = 102
CHAPTER IV. ACCESS TO SWESTANTVE ASYLUM PROCEDURES = 105
1. Restricted Access to the EU Territory = 106
1.1. Document requirements = 106
1.2. Carrier sanctions = 112
2. Transfers of Responsibility = 116
2.1. Internal transfers of responsibility: criteria and mecha- nisms for determining the Member State responsible for examining an asylum claim = 117
2.1 1. The Dublin Convention system ‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 118
2.1.2. The Dublin II Regulation: the answer to the short- comings of the Dublin Convention? = 131
2.2. External transfers of responsibility: removals to third Countries prior to substantive consideration = 141
2.2.1, Country of first asylum, safe third country and safe Country of origin concepts = 142
2.2.2. Readmission agreements and readmission clauses . 15?
3. An Imperative Pre-requirement to Transfers of Responsibility: The 'Safety’ Test = 157
3.1. Safety criteria = 162
3.1.1. Comprehensive protection against refoulement = 162
3.1.2. Observance of international human rights standards = 163
3.1.3. Durable protection in the third country = 164
3.1.4. Access to a fair and effective refugee status deter- mination procedure = 165
3.2. Procedural safeguards = 163
3,2.1.Advancesubstantiatlonofsafety = 165
3.2.2. Individual assessment = 166
3.2.3.Advanceconsenttothetransfer = 166
3.2.4. Right to challenge the decision relating to the transfer = 167
4. Conclusion = 169
CHAPTER V. FAIR AND EFFECTIVE PROCEDURES = 173
1. The Scope of Accelerated Procedures = 176
1.1 Inadmissible applications for asylum = 177
1.2. Unfounded applications for asylum = 178
1.3. Subsequent and border application cases = 180
2. Basic procedural safe guards = 181
2.1. Competent authorities and bodies = 181
2.1.1. Submission authorities = 182
2.1.2. Competent first instance decision-makers = 184
2.1.3. Competent appellate bodies = 187
2.2. The services of an independent, impartial and competent interpreter = 190
2.3. The opportunity to contact a UNHCR representative = 193
2.4. Access to a lawyer: the right to informed legal advice = 195
3. Submission of the Application for Asylum = 198
3.1 Right to be informed on the procedure = 198
3.2. An opportunity to have one's claim lodged as early· as Possible = 200
4. First instance Decision-Making = 201
4.1. The gathering of information = 201
4.1.1 information supplied by the asylum seeker = 201
4.1.2.Colilltryinformation = 205
4.2. Examination of the information = 206
4.3, Additional safeguards = 212
4.3.1.Suspensiveeffect = 212
4.3.2. Right to a decision in writing = 213
5. Challenge of Negative First instance Decisions = 213
5.1 An in-country right of appeal = 214
5.2. Suspensive effect = 215
5.3. Reasonable time limits = 216
6. Conclusion = 217
CHAPTER VI. ASYLUM SEEKERS'TREATMENT PENDING DETERMINA- TION = 219
1. Support for Asylum Seekers = 220
1.1. The characteristics of the Directive on the reception of asylum seekers = 220
1.2 Conditions of eligibility for state support = 222
1.2.1. Personal scope of the Directive = 222
1.2.2. Reduction and withdrawal of state support = 227
1.3. The modalities of start support = 228
1.3.1. Indirect State support: asylum seekers' access to the Labour market = 229
1.3.2.Directstatesupport = 231 2 Detention An Exceptional Measure = 243
2.1. Alternatives to detention = 245
2.2. Cases of justified detention = 246
2.3 Procedural safeguards and detention conditions = 250
2.3.1. Procedural safeguards = 250
2.3.2. Detention conditions = 258
3. Conclusion = 261
CHAPTER Vll. CONCLUSIONS = 263
1. Summary Conclusions: Recommendations for Law Reform = 264
1 1. An updated interpretation of the Convention definition of refugee = 265
1.1 1. The treatment of non-State persecution = 265
1.1.2. The treatment of gender-related persecution = 266
1.1.3. A flexible interpretation of membership of a Particular social group = 267
1.1.4. EC nationals as asylum seekers = 267
1.2. Asylum seekers' access to the EU territory = 268
1.3. Transfers of responsibility in line with international standards = 268
1.3.1. Compliance with safety criteria = 269
1.3.2. The provision of procedural safeguards = 271
1.4. fair and effective asylum procedures = 272
1.4.1. Competent authorities and bodies = 272
1.4.2. The services of an independent, impartial and com- petent interpreter = 274
1.4.3. The opportunity to contact a UNHCR represen- tative = 274
1.4.4. Access to a lawyer: the right to informed legal advice = 274
1.4.5. Submission of the application for asylum = 274
1.4.6. First instance decision-making = 275
1.4.7. The right to challenge negative first instance decisions = 276
1.5. Support for asylum seekers = 277
1.5.1.Eligibilityforstatesupport = 277
1.5.2. The modalities of state support = 278
1.6. The detention of asylum seekers: an exceptional measure = 280
2. Further Issue = 281
2.1. Further issues arising from the right to seek refugee stats = 281
2.2. Further Issues relation to international protection 283