1. An Overview of Out-Migration from South Asia / Pong-Sul Ahn = 1
1.1 Characteristics of Out-migration from South Asia = 2
1.2 Legal Framework = 3
1.3 Employment Perspectives = 5
1.4 Economic Impact on the Sending Countries = 7
1.5 Economic Impact on Receiving Countries = 8
1.6 Household Economies of Migrant Workers = 9
1.7 Human and Labour Rights = 10
1.8 Trade Union Responses = 12
1.9 International Labour Standards for Migrant Workers = 14
1.10 Conclusion = 15
2. Bangladesh : The Complexities and Management of Out-Migration / Tasneem Siddiqui = 19
2.1 Introduction = 19
2.2 Out-migration in historical settings = 19
2.3 Legal framework = 21
2.4 Factors promoting out-migration = 28
2.5 Employment perspectives = 32
2.6 Impact of migration on the national economy = 35
2.7 Household economy of migrant workers = 38
2.8 Human and labour rights = 42
2.9 Trade union responses = 44
2.10 Conclusions and recommendations = 47
Annex Table 1 = 53
Annex Table 2 = 55
3. India : Migrant Workers Awaiting Recognition and Protection / Paramjit Singh Sahai and Krishan Chand = 58
3.1 Introduction = 58
3.2 A tradition of migration = 59
3.3 Legal framework = 61
3.4 Employment perspective = 64
3.5 Impact on the national economy = 70
3.6 Economic impact on the receiving countries = 74
3.7 Household economy for migrant workers = 76
3.8 Human and labour rights = 78
3.9 Trade union responses = 82
3.10 Conclusion and recommendations = 85
Annex Table 1 = 91
Annex Table 2 = 93
4. Nepal : The Prospects and Problems of Foreign Labour Migration / Ganesh Gurung and Jaganath Adhikari = 100
4.1 Introduction = 100
4.2 Trends of migration: historical analysis = 101
4.3 Legal regime: protection and promotion = 104
4.4 Employment perspective: variations in access to opportunities = 109
4.5 Contribution of labour migration to the economy = 112
4.6 Labour migration and its contribution to household economy = 113
4.7 Labour and human rights = 116
4.8 Trade union responses: organizing activities = 121
4.9 Conclusion and recommendations = 123
Annex Table 1 = 128
5. Pakistan : Migrant Workers Coping with Discrimination and Poverty / Qamar Ali Shah = 131
5.1 Introduction = 131
5.2 Incidence of out-migration in historical settings = 132
5.3 Legal framework = 135
5.4 Employment perspective = 137
5.5 Economic impact on sending countries = 138
5.6 Economic impact on labour-receiving countries = 140
5.7 Household economy for migrant workers = 142
5.8 Human and labour rights = 144
5.9 Trade union responses = 148
5.10 Conclusion and recommendations = 149
6. Sri Lanka : The Anxieties and Opportunities of Out-migration / Malsiri Dias and Ramani Jayasundere = 153
6.1 Introduction = 153
6.2 Tracing the history of migration = 154
6.3 Government policy and legislation = 158
6.4 Employment perspective = 166
6.5 Economic impact on Sri Lanka = 169
6.6 Economic impact on receiving countries = 172
6.7 Household economy of migrant workers = 173
6.8 Labour and human rights = 177
6.9 Trade union responses = 180
6.10 Conclusions and recommendations = 183
Annex A = 186
Annex B = 190
7. Concluding Remarks / Pong-Sul Ahn and Piyasiri Wickramasekara = 193
7.1 Bangladesh = 193
7.2 India = 194
7.3 Nepal = 195
7.4 Pakistan = 196
7.5 Sri Lanka = 196
7.6 Policy Implications = 197
Annex A = 201
Tables & Chart
Abbreviations = 205
References = 207
1.1 Characteristics of Out-migration from South Asia = 2
1.2 Legal Framework = 3
1.3 Employment Perspectives = 5
1.4 Economic Impact on the Sending Countries = 7
1.5 Economic Impact on Receiving Countries = 8
1.6 Household Economies of Migrant Workers = 9
1.7 Human and Labour Rights = 10
1.8 Trade Union Responses = 12
1.9 International Labour Standards for Migrant Workers = 14
1.10 Conclusion = 15
2. Bangladesh : The Complexities and Management of Out-Migration / Tasneem Siddiqui = 19
2.1 Introduction = 19
2.2 Out-migration in historical settings = 19
2.3 Legal framework = 21
2.4 Factors promoting out-migration = 28
2.5 Employment perspectives = 32
2.6 Impact of migration on the national economy = 35
2.7 Household economy of migrant workers = 38
2.8 Human and labour rights = 42
2.9 Trade union responses = 44
2.10 Conclusions and recommendations = 47
Annex Table 1 = 53
Annex Table 2 = 55
3. India : Migrant Workers Awaiting Recognition and Protection / Paramjit Singh Sahai and Krishan Chand = 58
3.1 Introduction = 58
3.2 A tradition of migration = 59
3.3 Legal framework = 61
3.4 Employment perspective = 64
3.5 Impact on the national economy = 70
3.6 Economic impact on the receiving countries = 74
3.7 Household economy for migrant workers = 76
3.8 Human and labour rights = 78
3.9 Trade union responses = 82
3.10 Conclusion and recommendations = 85
Annex Table 1 = 91
Annex Table 2 = 93
4. Nepal : The Prospects and Problems of Foreign Labour Migration / Ganesh Gurung and Jaganath Adhikari = 100
4.1 Introduction = 100
4.2 Trends of migration: historical analysis = 101
4.3 Legal regime: protection and promotion = 104
4.4 Employment perspective: variations in access to opportunities = 109
4.5 Contribution of labour migration to the economy = 112
4.6 Labour migration and its contribution to household economy = 113
4.7 Labour and human rights = 116
4.8 Trade union responses: organizing activities = 121
4.9 Conclusion and recommendations = 123
Annex Table 1 = 128
5. Pakistan : Migrant Workers Coping with Discrimination and Poverty / Qamar Ali Shah = 131
5.1 Introduction = 131
5.2 Incidence of out-migration in historical settings = 132
5.3 Legal framework = 135
5.4 Employment perspective = 137
5.5 Economic impact on sending countries = 138
5.6 Economic impact on labour-receiving countries = 140
5.7 Household economy for migrant workers = 142
5.8 Human and labour rights = 144
5.9 Trade union responses = 148
5.10 Conclusion and recommendations = 149
6. Sri Lanka : The Anxieties and Opportunities of Out-migration / Malsiri Dias and Ramani Jayasundere = 153
6.1 Introduction = 153
6.2 Tracing the history of migration = 154
6.3 Government policy and legislation = 158
6.4 Employment perspective = 166
6.5 Economic impact on Sri Lanka = 169
6.6 Economic impact on receiving countries = 172
6.7 Household economy of migrant workers = 173
6.8 Labour and human rights = 177
6.9 Trade union responses = 180
6.10 Conclusions and recommendations = 183
Annex A = 186
Annex B = 190
7. Concluding Remarks / Pong-Sul Ahn and Piyasiri Wickramasekara = 193
7.1 Bangladesh = 193
7.2 India = 194
7.3 Nepal = 195
7.4 Pakistan = 196
7.5 Sri Lanka = 196
7.6 Policy Implications = 197
Annex A = 201
Tables & Chart
Abbreviations = 205
References = 207