Executive summary = ix
Introduction = 1
Part I. From principle to reality = 5
1. Growing international recognition of the need to eliminate discrimination in the world of work = 7
The ILO: A key player in building international consensus = 7
Social mobilization and organization: The drive behind international recognition and commitment = 12
2. Discrimination: What should be eliminated and why? = 15
What is discrimination? = 15
Discrimination in employment and occupation : What work situations are covered? = 18
Types of discrimination = 19
What does not constitute discrimination = 21
Why does discrimination persist? = 23
The role of labour market institutions and processes = 23
Denying or downplaying discrimination = 24
Why it is important to eliminate discrimination at work = 25
The link between discrimination and poverty = 27
3. The changing face of discrimination at work = 29
Racial discrimination: Continuity and change = 29
Religious discrimination: The need for better scrutiny and understanding = 31
The challenge of eliminating discrimination against people living with HIV/AIDS = 32
Discrimination on the grounds of disability = 34
Age as a determinant of discrimination in the labour market = 35
Multiple discrimination: The accumulation of deprivation = 36
Part II. Selected trends and policy issues = 39
1. Gender inequalities in the labour market as a proxy for sex-based discrimination at work = 41
Discrimination at entry to the labour market = 41
Discrimination in occupation = 43
Determinants of occupational segregation = 44
Trends in occupational segregation = 45
Discrimination in remuneration = 47
Where does the problem lie and why is it important to tackle it? = 47
Determinants of discrimination in remuneration = 49
Trends in discrimination in remuneration = 51
Disparities in earnings based on race = 54
The minimum wage = 56
2. Policy issues and interventions = 58
Legislation: An indispensable first step = 58
Shifts in legal approaches to combat discrimination and promote equality = 60
Public procurement policies: A new instrument to promote equality? = 61
Enforcement, monitoring and promotion are crucial for sustained change = 61
Closing the gap: Affirmative action = 63
Has affirmative action brought about the intended results? = 66
The importance of gathering the right data = 68
Technical and financial considerations = 68
Political and ideological orientations = 69
Concerns about privacy = 69
Developing a measuring tool = 69
Educational and vocational training help inclusion = 70
The role of employment services = 72
Balancing work and family = 73
Why is it important to get the work/family balance right? =74
Fiscal measures = 75
Shortening work schedules = 75
Care services for children and other dependent family members = 75
Maternity protection and parental leave = 76
Family-friendly arrangements promoted by enterprises = 76
Part III. The ILO and the social partners in action =79
1. The ILO: A long history of combating discrimination at work = 81
ILO action is rooted in the international labour standards = 81
The ILO and racial discrimination: Paving the way for institutional change = 82
The ILO in post-apartheid South Africa and Namibia: Building an affirmative action policy = 82
Brazil: Campaigning for equality in respect of diversity = 83
From a focus on women workers to gender mainstreaming = 83
Reducing the rights deficit by promoting women workers’ rights = 84
More and better jobs for women = 84
An enabling environment for women entrepreneurs = 85
Empowering women through micro-finance programmes = 86
Breaking through the glass ceiling = 86
Sexual harassment = 86
Tackling gender inequalities in remuneration = 87
The trafficking of human beings = 88
Decent work for “invisible” workers:Homeworkers = 88
Gender mainstreaming and the gender audit = 89
Linking poverty and social exclusion to discrimination at work = 90
Mainstreaming gender in anti-poverty policies and programmes = 91
Participation in the Poverty Reduction Strategy
Paper process: A window of opportunity to promote equality = 92
Public investment programmes: Promoting inclusive approaches and respect of equality standards = 92
Challenging discriminatory practices through crisis response = 93
Targeted interventions: A focus on disadvantaged and vulnerable groups =94
Promoting indigenous and tribal peoples’ rights and livelihoods = 94
Addressing discrimination based on disability and HIV/AIDS status through codes of practice = 95
Decent treatment of migrant workers = 97
2. Employers’ and workers’ organizations: Key partners in achieving equality = 99
Voice and representation: Enabling conditions = 99
Trade union efforts to reach out to workers without representation = 100
Employers’ associations: Raising the representation of discriminated-against groups = 101
Voice and representation is key to eliminating poverty and social exclusion = 103
Collective bargaining: A conduit to equality? =104
Gender equality bargaining : What have we learnt? = 105
Equality bargaining beyond gender = 107
Enterprises mobilizing for equality = 107
The challenge of small and medium-sized enterprises = 109
Beyond national initiatives and national actors = 110
Part IV. Towards an action plan to eliminate discrimination at work = 113
1. The way forward = 115
Defining the needs for further action by the ILO = 115
Three strategies to set the wheels in motion = 116
Knowledge = 116
Advocacy = 117
Services = 117
2. Conclusion = 119
Annexes
1. ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work and its Follow-up = 123
2. Table of ratifications of ILO Conventions Nos. 100 and 111 = 127
3. Table 1. Changes in some features of women’s participation in the labour market . selected countries = 131
Table 2. Unemployment differentials between women and men . selected countries = 133
Table 3. Index of dissimilarity (ID) and genderdominated non-agricultural occupations for selected countries = 135
Table 4. Findings from selected studies using the Oaxaca-Blinder approach: Proportion of the gender pay gap (GPG) attributed to labour market discrimination = 136
Introduction = 1
Part I. From principle to reality = 5
1. Growing international recognition of the need to eliminate discrimination in the world of work = 7
The ILO: A key player in building international consensus = 7
Social mobilization and organization: The drive behind international recognition and commitment = 12
2. Discrimination: What should be eliminated and why? = 15
What is discrimination? = 15
Discrimination in employment and occupation : What work situations are covered? = 18
Types of discrimination = 19
What does not constitute discrimination = 21
Why does discrimination persist? = 23
The role of labour market institutions and processes = 23
Denying or downplaying discrimination = 24
Why it is important to eliminate discrimination at work = 25
The link between discrimination and poverty = 27
3. The changing face of discrimination at work = 29
Racial discrimination: Continuity and change = 29
Religious discrimination: The need for better scrutiny and understanding = 31
The challenge of eliminating discrimination against people living with HIV/AIDS = 32
Discrimination on the grounds of disability = 34
Age as a determinant of discrimination in the labour market = 35
Multiple discrimination: The accumulation of deprivation = 36
Part II. Selected trends and policy issues = 39
1. Gender inequalities in the labour market as a proxy for sex-based discrimination at work = 41
Discrimination at entry to the labour market = 41
Discrimination in occupation = 43
Determinants of occupational segregation = 44
Trends in occupational segregation = 45
Discrimination in remuneration = 47
Where does the problem lie and why is it important to tackle it? = 47
Determinants of discrimination in remuneration = 49
Trends in discrimination in remuneration = 51
Disparities in earnings based on race = 54
The minimum wage = 56
2. Policy issues and interventions = 58
Legislation: An indispensable first step = 58
Shifts in legal approaches to combat discrimination and promote equality = 60
Public procurement policies: A new instrument to promote equality? = 61
Enforcement, monitoring and promotion are crucial for sustained change = 61
Closing the gap: Affirmative action = 63
Has affirmative action brought about the intended results? = 66
The importance of gathering the right data = 68
Technical and financial considerations = 68
Political and ideological orientations = 69
Concerns about privacy = 69
Developing a measuring tool = 69
Educational and vocational training help inclusion = 70
The role of employment services = 72
Balancing work and family = 73
Why is it important to get the work/family balance right? =74
Fiscal measures = 75
Shortening work schedules = 75
Care services for children and other dependent family members = 75
Maternity protection and parental leave = 76
Family-friendly arrangements promoted by enterprises = 76
Part III. The ILO and the social partners in action =79
1. The ILO: A long history of combating discrimination at work = 81
ILO action is rooted in the international labour standards = 81
The ILO and racial discrimination: Paving the way for institutional change = 82
The ILO in post-apartheid South Africa and Namibia: Building an affirmative action policy = 82
Brazil: Campaigning for equality in respect of diversity = 83
From a focus on women workers to gender mainstreaming = 83
Reducing the rights deficit by promoting women workers’ rights = 84
More and better jobs for women = 84
An enabling environment for women entrepreneurs = 85
Empowering women through micro-finance programmes = 86
Breaking through the glass ceiling = 86
Sexual harassment = 86
Tackling gender inequalities in remuneration = 87
The trafficking of human beings = 88
Decent work for “invisible” workers:Homeworkers = 88
Gender mainstreaming and the gender audit = 89
Linking poverty and social exclusion to discrimination at work = 90
Mainstreaming gender in anti-poverty policies and programmes = 91
Participation in the Poverty Reduction Strategy
Paper process: A window of opportunity to promote equality = 92
Public investment programmes: Promoting inclusive approaches and respect of equality standards = 92
Challenging discriminatory practices through crisis response = 93
Targeted interventions: A focus on disadvantaged and vulnerable groups =94
Promoting indigenous and tribal peoples’ rights and livelihoods = 94
Addressing discrimination based on disability and HIV/AIDS status through codes of practice = 95
Decent treatment of migrant workers = 97
2. Employers’ and workers’ organizations: Key partners in achieving equality = 99
Voice and representation: Enabling conditions = 99
Trade union efforts to reach out to workers without representation = 100
Employers’ associations: Raising the representation of discriminated-against groups = 101
Voice and representation is key to eliminating poverty and social exclusion = 103
Collective bargaining: A conduit to equality? =104
Gender equality bargaining : What have we learnt? = 105
Equality bargaining beyond gender = 107
Enterprises mobilizing for equality = 107
The challenge of small and medium-sized enterprises = 109
Beyond national initiatives and national actors = 110
Part IV. Towards an action plan to eliminate discrimination at work = 113
1. The way forward = 115
Defining the needs for further action by the ILO = 115
Three strategies to set the wheels in motion = 116
Knowledge = 116
Advocacy = 117
Services = 117
2. Conclusion = 119
Annexes
1. ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work and its Follow-up = 123
2. Table of ratifications of ILO Conventions Nos. 100 and 111 = 127
3. Table 1. Changes in some features of women’s participation in the labour market . selected countries = 131
Table 2. Unemployment differentials between women and men . selected countries = 133
Table 3. Index of dissimilarity (ID) and genderdominated non-agricultural occupations for selected countries = 135
Table 4. Findings from selected studies using the Oaxaca-Blinder approach: Proportion of the gender pay gap (GPG) attributed to labour market discrimination = 136